## 问题 You would like to find out where your program spends its time and make timingmeasurements. ## 解决方案 If you simply want to time your whole program, it’s usually easy enough to use somethinglike the Unix time command. For example: bash % time python3 someprogram.pyreal 0m13.937suser 0m12.162ssys 0m0.098sbash % On the other extreme, if you want a detailed report showing what your program is doing,you can use the cProfile module: bash % python3 -m cProfile someprogram.py> 859647 function calls in 16.016 CPU seconds Ordered by: standard name ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno(function)263169 0.080 0.000 0.080 0.000 someprogram.py:16(frange) > 513 0.001 0.000 0.002 0.000 someprogram.py:30(generate_mandel) 262656 0.194 0.000 15.295 0.000 someprogram.py:32(<genexpr>)1 0.036 0.036 16.077 16.077 someprogram.py:4(<module>)262144 15.021 0.000 15.021 0.000 someprogram.py:4(in_mandelbrot)> > > 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 os.py:746(urandom)1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 png.py:1056(_readable)1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 png.py:1073(Reader)1 0.227 0.227 0.438 0.438 png.py:163(<module>) > 512 0.010 0.000 0.010 0.000 png.py:200(group) ... bash % More often than not, profiling your code lies somewhere in between these two extremes.For example, you may already know that your code spends most of its time in a fewselected functions. For selected profiling of functions, a short decorator can be useful.For example: # timethis.py import timefrom functools import wraps def timethis(func): @wraps(func)def wrapper([*](#)args, [**](#)kwargs): > start = time.perf_counter()r = func([*](#)args, [**](#)kwargs)end = time.perf_counter()print(‘{}.{} : {}'.format(func.__module__, func.__name__, end - start))return r return wrapper To use this decorator, you simply place it in front of a function definition to get timingsfrom it. For example: >>> @timethis ... def countdown(n): ... while n > 0: ... n -= 1 ... >>> countdown(10000000) __main__.countdown : 0.803001880645752 >>> To time a block of statements, you can define a context manager. For example: from contextlib import contextmanager @contextmanagerdef timeblock(label): > > start = time.perf_counter()try: > > yield finally:end = time.perf_counter()print(‘{} : {}'.format(label, end - start)) Here is an example of how the context manager works: >>> with timeblock('counting'): ... n = 10000000 ... while n > 0: ... n -= 1 ... counting : 1.5551159381866455 >>> For studying the performance of small code fragments, the timeit module can be useful.For example: >>> from timeit import timeit >>> timeit('math.sqrt(2)', 'import math') 0.1432319980012835 >>> timeit('sqrt(2)', 'from math import sqrt') 0.10836604500218527 >>> timeit works by executing the statement specified in the first argument a million timesand measuring the time. The second argument is a setup string that is executed to setup the environment prior to running the test. If you need to change the number ofiterations, supply a number argument like this: >>> timeit('math.sqrt(2)', 'import math', number=10000000) 1.434852126003534 >>> timeit('sqrt(2)', 'from math import sqrt', number=10000000) 1.0270336690009572 >>> ## 讨论 When making performance measurements, be aware that any results you get are ap‐proximations. The time.perf_counter() function used in the solution provides thehighest-resolution timer possible on a given platform. However, it still measures wall-clock time, and can be impacted by many different factors, such as machine load.If you are interested in process time as opposed to wall-clock time, use time.process_time() instead. For example: from functools import wrapsdef timethis(func): > > @wraps(func)def wrapper([*](#)args, [**](#)kwargs): > > start = time.process_time()r = func([*](#)args, [**](#)kwargs)end = time.process_time()print(‘{}.{} : {}'.format(func.__module__, func.__name__, end - start))return r > return wrapper Last, but not least, if you’re going to perform detailed timing analysis, make sure to readthe documentation for the time, timeit, and other associated modules, so that you havean understanding of important platform-related differences and other pitfalls.See Recipe 13.13 for a related recipe on creating a stopwatch timer class.