## 问题 You want to safely execute a Python callable from C and return a result back to C. Forexample, perhaps you are writing C code that wants to use a Python function as acallback. ## 解决方案 Calling Python from C is mostly straightforward, but involves a number of tricky parts.The following C code shows an example of how to do it safely: #include <Python.h> /* Execute func(x,y) in the Python interpreter. Thearguments and return result of the function mustbe Python floats [*](#)/double call_func(PyObject [*](#)func, double x, double y) { PyObject [*](#)args;PyObject [*](#)kwargs;PyObject [*](#)result = 0;double retval; /* Make sure we own the GIL [*](#)/PyGILState_STATE state = PyGILState_Ensure(); /* Verify that func is a proper callable [*](#)/if (!PyCallable_Check(func)) { > fprintf(stderr,”call_func: expected a callablen”);goto fail; }/* Build arguments [*](#)/args = Py_BuildValue(“(dd)”, x, y);kwargs = NULL; /* Call the function [*](#)/result = PyObject_Call(func, args, kwargs);Py_DECREF(args);Py_XDECREF(kwargs); /* Check for Python exceptions (if any) [*](#)/if (PyErr_Occurred()) { > PyErr_Print();goto fail; } /* Verify the result is a float object [*](#)/if (!PyFloat_Check(result)) { > fprintf(stderr,”call_func: callable didn't return a floatn”);goto fail; } /* Create the return value [*](#)/retval = PyFloat_AsDouble(result);Py_DECREF(result); /* Restore previous GIL state and return [*](#)/PyGILState_Release(state);return retval; fail:Py_XDECREF(result);PyGILState_Release(state);abort(); // Change to something more appropriate } To use this function, you need to have obtained a reference to an existing Python callableto pass in. There are many ways that you can go about doing that, such as having acallable object passed into an extension module or simply writing C code to extract asymbol from an existing module.Here is a simple example that shows calling a function from an embedded Pythoninterpreter: #include <Python.h> /* Definition of call_func() same as above [*](#)/... /* Load a symbol from a module [*](#)/PyObject [*](#)import_name(const char [*](#)modname, const char [*](#)symbol) { > PyObject [*](#)u_name, [*](#)module;u_name = PyUnicode_FromString(modname);module = PyImport_Import(u_name);Py_DECREF(u_name);return PyObject_GetAttrString(module, symbol); } /* Simple embedding example [*](#)/int main() { > > PyObject [*](#)pow_func;double x; > Py_Initialize();/* Get a reference to the math.pow function [*](#)/pow_func = import_name(“math”,”pow”); > /* Call it using our call_func() code [*](#)/for (x = 0.0; x < 10.0; x += 0.1) { > > printf(“%0.2f %0.2fn”, x, call_func(pow_func,x,2.0)); > }/* Done [*](#)/Py_DECREF(pow_func);Py_Finalize();return 0; } To build this last example, you’ll need to compile the C and link against the Pythoninterpreter. Here is a Makefile that shows how you might do it (this is something thatmight require some amount of fiddling with on your machine): all::cc -g embed.c -I/usr/local/include/python3.3m -L/usr/local/lib/python3.3/config-3.3m -lpython3.3m Compiling and running the resulting executable should produce output similar to this: 0.00 0.000.10 0.010.20 0.040.30 0.090.40 0.16... Here is a slightly different example that shows an extension function that receives acallable and some arguments and passes them to call_func() for the purposes oftesting: /* Extension function for testing the C-Python callback [*](#)/PyObject [*](#)py_call_func(PyObject [*](#)self, PyObject [*](#)args) { > > PyObject [*](#)func; > double x, y, result;if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args,”Odd”, &func,&x,&y)) { > > return NULL; > }result = call_func(func, x, y);return Py_BuildValue(“d”, result); } Using this extension function, you could test it as follows: >>> import sample >>> def add(x,y): ... return x+y ... >>> sample.call_func(add,3,4) 7.0 >>> ## 讨论 If you are calling Python from C, the most important thing to keep in mind is that C isgenerally going to be in charge. That is, C has the responsibility of creating the argu‐ments, calling the Python function, checking for exceptions, checking types, extractingreturn values, and more.As a first step, it is critical that you have a Python object representing the callable thatyou’re going to invoke. This could be a function, class, method, built-in method, oranything that implements the __call__() operation. To verify that it’s callable, usePyCallable_Check() as shown in this code fragment: double call_func(PyObject [*](#)func, double x, double y) { .../* Verify that func is a proper callable [*](#)/if (!PyCallable_Check(func)) { > fprintf(stderr,”call_func: expected a callablen”);goto fail; As an aside, handling errors in the C code is something that you will need to carefullystudy. As a general rule, you can’t just raise a Python exception. Instead, errors will haveto be handled in some other manner that makes sense to your C code. In the solution,we’re using goto to transfer control to an error handling block that calls abort(). Thiscauses the whole program to die, but in real code you would probably want to do some‐thing more graceful (e.g., return a status code). Keep in mind that C is in charge here,so there isn’t anything comparable to just raising an exception. Error handling is some‐thing you’ll have to engineer into the program somehow.Calling a function is relatively straightforward—simply use PyObject_Call(), supply‐ing it with the callable object, a tuple of arguments, and an optional dictionary of keyword arguments. To build the argument tuple or dictionary, you can use Py_BuildValue(), as shown. double call_func(PyObject [*](#)func, double x, double y) { PyObject [*](#)args;PyObject [*](#)kwargs; .../* Build arguments [*](#)/args = Py_BuildValue(“(dd)”, x, y);kwargs = NULL; /* Call the function [*](#)/result = PyObject_Call(func, args, kwargs);Py_DECREF(args);Py_XDECREF(kwargs);... If there are no keyword arguments, you can pass NULL, as shown. After making thefunction call, you need to make sure that you clean up the arguments using Py_DECREF() or Py_XDECREF(). The latter function safely allows the NULL pointer to bepassed (which is ignored), which is why we’re using it for cleaning up the optionalkeyword arguments.After calling the Python function, you must check for the presence of exceptions. ThePyErr_Occurred() function can be used to do this. Knowing what to do in response toan exception is tricky. Since you’re working from C, you really don’t have the exceptionmachinery that Python has. Thus, you would have to set an error status code, log theerror, or do some kind of sensible processing. In the solution, abort() is called for lackof a simpler alternative (besides, hardened C programmers will appreciate the abruptcrash): > > .../* Check for Python exceptions (if any) [*](#)/if (PyErr_Occurred()) { > > PyErr_Print();goto fail; fail:PyGILState_Release(state);abort(); Extracting information from the return value of calling a Python function is typicallygoing to involve some kind of type checking and value extraction. To do this, you mayhave to use functions in the Python concrete objects layer. In the solution, the codechecks for and extracts the value of a Python float using PyFloat_Check() and PyFloat_AsDouble(). A final tricky part of calling into Python from C concerns the management of Python’sglobal interpreter lock (GIL). Whenever Python is accessed from C, you need to makesure that the GIL is properly acquired and released. Otherwise, you run the risk of havingthe interpreter corrupt data or crash. The calls to PyGILState_Ensure() and PyGILState_Release() make sure that it’s done correctly: double call_func(PyObject [*](#)func, double x, double y) { ...double retval; /* Make sure we own the GIL _/PyGILState_STATE state = PyGILState_Ensure();.../_ Code that uses Python C API functions _/.../_ Restore previous GIL state and return [*](#)/PyGILState_Release(state);return retval; fail:PyGILState_Release(state);abort(); } Upon return, PyGILState_Ensure() always guarantees that the calling thread has ex‐clusive access to the Python interpreter. This is true even if the calling C code is runninga different thread that is unknown to the interpreter. At this point, the C code is free touse any Python C-API functions that it wants. Upon successful completion, PyGILState_Release() is used to restore the interpreter back to its original state.It is critical to note that every PyGILState_Ensure() call must be followed by a matchingPyGILState_Release() call—even in cases where errors have occurred. In the solution,the use of a goto statement might look like a horrible design, but we’re actually using itto transfer control to a common exit block that performs this required step. Think ofthe code after the fail: lable as serving the same purpose as code in a Python finally: block.If you write your C code using all of these conventions including management of theGIL, checking for exceptions, and thorough error checking, you’ll find that you canreliably call into the Python interpreter from C—even in very complicated programsthat utilize advanced programming techniques such as multithreading.