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# [`imaplib`](#module-imaplib "imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets).") --- IMAP4 protocol client
**Source code:** [Lib/imaplib.py](https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/imaplib.py) \[https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/imaplib.py\]
- - - - - -
This module defines three classes, [`IMAP4`](#imaplib.IMAP4 "imaplib.IMAP4"), [`IMAP4_SSL`](#imaplib.IMAP4_SSL "imaplib.IMAP4_SSL") and [`IMAP4_stream`](#imaplib.IMAP4_stream "imaplib.IMAP4_stream"), which encapsulate a connection to an IMAP4 server and implement a large subset of the IMAP4rev1 client protocol as defined in [**RFC 2060**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2060.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2060.html\]. It is backward compatible with IMAP4 ([**RFC 1730**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1730.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1730.html\]) servers, but note that the `STATUS` command is not supported in IMAP4.
Three classes are provided by the [`imaplib`](#module-imaplib "imaplib: IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets).") module, [`IMAP4`](#imaplib.IMAP4 "imaplib.IMAP4") is the base class:
*class* `imaplib.``IMAP4`(*host=''*, *port=IMAP4\_PORT*)This class implements the actual IMAP4 protocol. The connection is created and protocol version (IMAP4 or IMAP4rev1) is determined when the instance is initialized. If *host* is not specified, `''` (the local host) is used. If *port* is omitted, the standard IMAP4 port (143) is used.
The [`IMAP4`](#imaplib.IMAP4 "imaplib.IMAP4") class supports the [`with`](../reference/compound_stmts.xhtml#with) statement. When used like this, the IMAP4 `LOGOUT` command is issued automatically when the `with` statement exits. E.g.:
```
>>> from imaplib import IMAP4
>>> with IMAP4("domain.org") as M:
... M.noop()
...
('OK', [b'Nothing Accomplished. d25if65hy903weo.87'])
```
在 3.5 版更改: 支持了 [`with`](../reference/compound_stmts.xhtml#with) 语句。
Three exceptions are defined as attributes of the [`IMAP4`](#imaplib.IMAP4 "imaplib.IMAP4") class:
*exception* `IMAP4.``error`Exception raised on any errors. The reason for the exception is passed to the constructor as a string.
*exception* `IMAP4.``abort`IMAP4 server errors cause this exception to be raised. This is a sub-class of [`IMAP4.error`](#imaplib.IMAP4.error "imaplib.IMAP4.error"). Note that closing the instance and instantiating a new one will usually allow recovery from this exception.
*exception* `IMAP4.``readonly`This exception is raised when a writable mailbox has its status changed by the server. This is a sub-class of [`IMAP4.error`](#imaplib.IMAP4.error "imaplib.IMAP4.error"). Some other client now has write permission, and the mailbox will need to be re-opened to re-obtain write permission.
There's also a subclass for secure connections:
*class* `imaplib.``IMAP4_SSL`(*host=''*, *port=IMAP4\_SSL\_PORT*, *keyfile=None*, *certfile=None*, *ssl\_context=None*)This is a subclass derived from [`IMAP4`](#imaplib.IMAP4 "imaplib.IMAP4") that connects over an SSL encrypted socket (to use this class you need a socket module that was compiled with SSL support). If *host* is not specified, `''` (the local host) is used. If *port* is omitted, the standard IMAP4-over-SSL port (993) is used. *ssl\_context* is a [`ssl.SSLContext`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext "ssl.SSLContext") object which allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure. Please read [Security considerations](ssl.xhtml#ssl-security) for best practices.
*keyfile* and *certfile* are a legacy alternative to *ssl\_context* - they can point to PEM-formatted private key and certificate chain files for the SSL connection. Note that the *keyfile*/*certfile* parameters are mutually exclusive with *ssl\_context*, a [`ValueError`](exceptions.xhtml#ValueError "ValueError") is raised if *keyfile*/*certfile* is provided along with *ssl\_context*.
在 3.3 版更改: *ssl\_context* parameter added.
在 3.4 版更改: The class now supports hostname check with [`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname "ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname") and *Server Name Indication* (see [`ssl.HAS_SNI`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.HAS_SNI "ssl.HAS_SNI")).
3\.6 版后已移除: *keyfile* and *certfile* are deprecated in favor of *ssl\_context*. Please use [`ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain()`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain "ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain") instead, or let [`ssl.create_default_context()`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.create_default_context "ssl.create_default_context") select the system's trusted CA certificates for you.
The second subclass allows for connections created by a child process:
*class* `imaplib.``IMAP4_stream`(*command*)This is a subclass derived from [`IMAP4`](#imaplib.IMAP4 "imaplib.IMAP4") that connects to the `stdin/stdout` file descriptors created by passing *command* to `subprocess.Popen()`.
The following utility functions are defined:
`imaplib.``Internaldate2tuple`(*datestr*)Parse an IMAP4 `INTERNALDATE` string and return corresponding local time. The return value is a [`time.struct_time`](time.xhtml#time.struct_time "time.struct_time") tuple or `None` if the string has wrong format.
`imaplib.``Int2AP`(*num*)Converts an integer into a string representation using characters from the set \[`A` .. `P`\].
`imaplib.``ParseFlags`(*flagstr*)Converts an IMAP4 `FLAGS` response to a tuple of individual flags.
`imaplib.``Time2Internaldate`(*date\_time*)Convert *date\_time* to an IMAP4 `INTERNALDATE` representation. The return value is a string in the form:
```
"DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS
+HHMM"
```
(including double-quotes). The *date\_time* argument can be a number (int or float) representing seconds since epoch (as returned by [`time.time()`](time.xhtml#time.time "time.time")), a 9-tuple representing local time an instance of [`time.struct_time`](time.xhtml#time.struct_time "time.struct_time") (as returned by [`time.localtime()`](time.xhtml#time.localtime "time.localtime")), an aware instance of [`datetime.datetime`](datetime.xhtml#datetime.datetime "datetime.datetime"), or a double-quoted string. In the last case, it is assumed to already be in the correct format.
Note that IMAP4 message numbers change as the mailbox changes; in particular, after an `EXPUNGE` command performs deletions the remaining messages are renumbered. So it is highly advisable to use UIDs instead, with the UID command.
At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more extensive example of usage.
参见
Documents describing the protocol, and sources and binaries for servers implementing it, can all be found at the University of Washington's *IMAP Information Center* (<https://www.washington.edu/imap/>).
## IMAP4 Objects
All IMAP4rev1 commands are represented by methods of the same name, either upper-case or lower-case.
All arguments to commands are converted to strings, except for `AUTHENTICATE`, and the last argument to `APPEND` which is passed as an IMAP4 literal. If necessary (the string contains IMAP4 protocol-sensitive characters and isn't enclosed with either parentheses or double quotes) each string is quoted. However, the *password* argument to the `LOGIN` command is always quoted. If you want to avoid having an argument string quoted (eg: the *flags* argument to `STORE`) then enclose the string in parentheses (eg: `r'(\Deleted)'`).
Each command returns a tuple: `(type, [data, ...])` where *type* is usually `'OK'` or `'NO'`, and *data* is either the text from the command response, or mandated results from the command. Each *data* is either a string, or a tuple. If a tuple, then the first part is the header of the response, and the second part contains the data (ie: 'literal' value).
The *message\_set* options to commands below is a string specifying one or more messages to be acted upon. It may be a simple message number (`'1'`), a range of message numbers (`'2:4'`), or a group of non-contiguous ranges separated by commas (`'1:3,6:9'`). A range can contain an asterisk to indicate an infinite upper bound (`'3:*'`).
An [`IMAP4`](#imaplib.IMAP4 "imaplib.IMAP4") instance has the following methods:
`IMAP4.``append`(*mailbox*, *flags*, *date\_time*, *message*)Append *message* to named mailbox.
`IMAP4.``authenticate`(*mechanism*, *authobject*)Authenticate command --- requires response processing.
*mechanism* specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used - it should appear in the instance variable `capabilities` in the form `AUTH=mechanism`.
*authobject* must be a callable object:
```
data = authobject(response)
```
It will be called to process server continuation responses; the *response*argument it is passed will be `bytes`. It should return `bytes` *data*that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server. It should return `None` if the client abort response `*` should be sent instead.
在 3.5 版更改: string usernames and passwords are now encoded to `utf-8` instead of being limited to ASCII.
`IMAP4.``check`()Checkpoint mailbox on server.
`IMAP4.``close`()Close currently selected mailbox. Deleted messages are removed from writable mailbox. This is the recommended command before `LOGOUT`.
`IMAP4.``copy`(*message\_set*, *new\_mailbox*)Copy *message\_set* messages onto end of *new\_mailbox*.
`IMAP4.``create`(*mailbox*)Create new mailbox named *mailbox*.
`IMAP4.``delete`(*mailbox*)Delete old mailbox named *mailbox*.
`IMAP4.``deleteacl`(*mailbox*, *who*)Delete the ACLs (remove any rights) set for who on mailbox.
`IMAP4.``enable`(*capability*)Enable *capability* (see [**RFC 5161**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5161.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5161.html\]). Most capabilities do not need to be enabled. Currently only the `UTF8=ACCEPT` capability is supported (see [**RFC 6855**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6855.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6855.html\]).
3\.5 新版功能: The [`enable()`](#imaplib.IMAP4.enable "imaplib.IMAP4.enable") method itself, and [**RFC 6855**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6855.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6855.html\] support.
`IMAP4.``expunge`()Permanently remove deleted items from selected mailbox. Generates an `EXPUNGE`response for each deleted message. Returned data contains a list of `EXPUNGE`message numbers in order received.
`IMAP4.``fetch`(*message\_set*, *message\_parts*)Fetch (parts of) messages. *message\_parts* should be a string of message part names enclosed within parentheses, eg: `"(UID BODY[TEXT])"`. Returned data are tuples of message part envelope and data.
`IMAP4.``getacl`(*mailbox*)Get the `ACL`s for *mailbox*. The method is non-standard, but is supported by the `Cyrus` server.
`IMAP4.``getannotation`(*mailbox*, *entry*, *attribute*)Retrieve the specified `ANNOTATION`s for *mailbox*. The method is non-standard, but is supported by the `Cyrus` server.
`IMAP4.``getquota`(*root*)Get the `quota` *root*'s resource usage and limits. This method is part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.
`IMAP4.``getquotaroot`(*mailbox*)Get the list of `quota``roots` for the named *mailbox*. This method is part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.
`IMAP4.``list`(\[*directory*\[, *pattern*\]\])List mailbox names in *directory* matching *pattern*. *directory* defaults to the top-level mail folder, and *pattern* defaults to match anything. Returned data contains a list of `LIST` responses.
`IMAP4.``login`(*user*, *password*)Identify the client using a plaintext password. The *password* will be quoted.
`IMAP4.``login_cram_md5`(*user*, *password*)Force use of `CRAM-MD5` authentication when identifying the client to protect the password. Will only work if the server `CAPABILITY` response includes the phrase `AUTH=CRAM-MD5`.
`IMAP4.``logout`()Shutdown connection to server. Returns server `BYE` response.
`IMAP4.``lsub`(*directory='""'*, *pattern='\*'*)List subscribed mailbox names in directory matching pattern. *directory*defaults to the top level directory and *pattern* defaults to match any mailbox. Returned data are tuples of message part envelope and data.
`IMAP4.``myrights`(*mailbox*)Show my ACLs for a mailbox (i.e. the rights that I have on mailbox).
`IMAP4.``namespace`()Returns IMAP namespaces as defined in [**RFC 2342**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2342.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2342.html\].
`IMAP4.``noop`()Send `NOOP` to server.
`IMAP4.``open`(*host*, *port*)Opens socket to *port* at *host*. This method is implicitly called by the [`IMAP4`](#imaplib.IMAP4 "imaplib.IMAP4") constructor. The connection objects established by this method will be used in the [`IMAP4.read()`](#imaplib.IMAP4.read "imaplib.IMAP4.read"), [`IMAP4.readline()`](#imaplib.IMAP4.readline "imaplib.IMAP4.readline"), [`IMAP4.send()`](#imaplib.IMAP4.send "imaplib.IMAP4.send"), and [`IMAP4.shutdown()`](#imaplib.IMAP4.shutdown "imaplib.IMAP4.shutdown") methods. You may override this method.
`IMAP4.``partial`(*message\_num*, *message\_part*, *start*, *length*)Fetch truncated part of a message. Returned data is a tuple of message part envelope and data.
`IMAP4.``proxyauth`(*user*)Assume authentication as *user*. Allows an authorised administrator to proxy into any user's mailbox.
`IMAP4.``read`(*size*)Reads *size* bytes from the remote server. You may override this method.
`IMAP4.``readline`()Reads one line from the remote server. You may override this method.
`IMAP4.``recent`()Prompt server for an update. Returned data is `None` if no new messages, else value of `RECENT` response.
`IMAP4.``rename`(*oldmailbox*, *newmailbox*)Rename mailbox named *oldmailbox* to *newmailbox*.
`IMAP4.``response`(*code*)Return data for response *code* if received, or `None`. Returns the given code, instead of the usual type.
`IMAP4.``search`(*charset*, *criterion*\[, *...*\])Search mailbox for matching messages. *charset* may be `None`, in which case no `CHARSET` will be specified in the request to the server. The IMAP protocol requires that at least one criterion be specified; an exception will be raised when the server returns an error. *charset* must be `None` if the `UTF8=ACCEPT` capability was enabled using the [`enable()`](#imaplib.IMAP4.enable "imaplib.IMAP4.enable")command.
示例:
```
# M is a connected IMAP4 instance...
typ, msgnums = M.search(None, 'FROM', '"LDJ"')
# or:
typ, msgnums = M.search(None, '(FROM "LDJ")')
```
`IMAP4.``select`(*mailbox='INBOX'*, *readonly=False*)Select a mailbox. Returned data is the count of messages in *mailbox*(`EXISTS` response). The default *mailbox* is `'INBOX'`. If the *readonly*flag is set, modifications to the mailbox are not allowed.
`IMAP4.``send`(*data*)Sends `data` to the remote server. You may override this method.
`IMAP4.``setacl`(*mailbox*, *who*, *what*)Set an `ACL` for *mailbox*. The method is non-standard, but is supported by the `Cyrus` server.
`IMAP4.``setannotation`(*mailbox*, *entry*, *attribute*\[, *...*\])Set `ANNOTATION`s for *mailbox*. The method is non-standard, but is supported by the `Cyrus` server.
`IMAP4.``setquota`(*root*, *limits*)Set the `quota` *root*'s resource *limits*. This method is part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.
`IMAP4.``shutdown`()Close connection established in `open`. This method is implicitly called by [`IMAP4.logout()`](#imaplib.IMAP4.logout "imaplib.IMAP4.logout"). You may override this method.
`IMAP4.``socket`()Returns socket instance used to connect to server.
`IMAP4.``sort`(*sort\_criteria*, *charset*, *search\_criterion*\[, *...*\])The `sort` command is a variant of `search` with sorting semantics for the results. Returned data contains a space separated list of matching message numbers.
Sort has two arguments before the *search\_criterion* argument(s); a parenthesized list of *sort\_criteria*, and the searching *charset*. Note that unlike `search`, the searching *charset* argument is mandatory. There is also a `uid sort` command which corresponds to `sort` the way that `uid search`corresponds to `search`. The `sort` command first searches the mailbox for messages that match the given searching criteria using the charset argument for the interpretation of strings in the searching criteria. It then returns the numbers of matching messages.
This is an `IMAP4rev1` extension command.
`IMAP4.``starttls`(*ssl\_context=None*)Send a `STARTTLS` command. The *ssl\_context* argument is optional and should be a [`ssl.SSLContext`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext "ssl.SSLContext") object. This will enable encryption on the IMAP connection. Please read [Security considerations](ssl.xhtml#ssl-security) for best practices.
3\.2 新版功能.
在 3.4 版更改: The method now supports hostname check with [`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname "ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname") and *Server Name Indication* (see [`ssl.HAS_SNI`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.HAS_SNI "ssl.HAS_SNI")).
`IMAP4.``status`(*mailbox*, *names*)Request named status conditions for *mailbox*.
`IMAP4.``store`(*message\_set*, *command*, *flag\_list*)Alters flag dispositions for messages in mailbox. *command* is specified by section 6.4.6 of [**RFC 2060**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2060.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2060.html\] as being one of "FLAGS", "+FLAGS", or "-FLAGS", optionally with a suffix of ".SILENT".
For example, to set the delete flag on all messages:
```
typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
for num in data[0].split():
M.store(num, '+FLAGS', '\\Deleted')
M.expunge()
```
注解
Creating flags containing '\]' (for example: "\[test\]") violates [**RFC 3501**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3501.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3501.html\] (the IMAP protocol). However, imaplib has historically allowed creation of such tags, and popular IMAP servers, such as Gmail, accept and produce such flags. There are non-Python programs which also create such tags. Although it is an RFC violation and IMAP clients and servers are supposed to be strict, imaplib nonetheless continues to allow such tags to be created for backward compatibility reasons, and as of Python 3.6, handles them if they are sent from the server, since this improves real-world compatibility.
`IMAP4.``subscribe`(*mailbox*)Subscribe to new mailbox.
`IMAP4.``thread`(*threading\_algorithm*, *charset*, *search\_criterion*\[, *...*\])The `thread` command is a variant of `search` with threading semantics for the results. Returned data contains a space separated list of thread members.
Thread members consist of zero or more messages numbers, delimited by spaces, indicating successive parent and child.
Thread has two arguments before the *search\_criterion* argument(s); a *threading\_algorithm*, and the searching *charset*. Note that unlike `search`, the searching *charset* argument is mandatory. There is also a `uid thread` command which corresponds to `thread` the way that
```
uid
search
```
corresponds to `search`. The `thread` command first searches the mailbox for messages that match the given searching criteria using the charset argument for the interpretation of strings in the searching criteria. It then returns the matching messages threaded according to the specified threading algorithm.
This is an `IMAP4rev1` extension command.
`IMAP4.``uid`(*command*, *arg*\[, *...*\])Execute command args with messages identified by UID, rather than message number. Returns response appropriate to command. At least one argument must be supplied; if none are provided, the server will return an error and an exception will be raised.
`IMAP4.``unsubscribe`(*mailbox*)Unsubscribe from old mailbox.
`IMAP4.``xatom`(*name*\[, *...*\])Allow simple extension commands notified by server in `CAPABILITY` response.
The following attributes are defined on instances of [`IMAP4`](#imaplib.IMAP4 "imaplib.IMAP4"):
`IMAP4.``PROTOCOL_VERSION`The most recent supported protocol in the `CAPABILITY` response from the server.
`IMAP4.``debug`Integer value to control debugging output. The initialize value is taken from the module variable `Debug`. Values greater than three trace each command.
`IMAP4.``utf8_enabled`Boolean value that is normally `False`, but is set to `True` if an [`enable()`](#imaplib.IMAP4.enable "imaplib.IMAP4.enable") command is successfully issued for the `UTF8=ACCEPT`capability.
3\.5 新版功能.
## IMAP4 Example
Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox and retrieves and prints all messages:
```
import getpass, imaplib
M = imaplib.IMAP4()
M.login(getpass.getuser(), getpass.getpass())
M.select()
typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
for num in data[0].split():
typ, data = M.fetch(num, '(RFC822)')
print('Message %s\n%s\n' % (num, data[0][1]))
M.close()
M.logout()
```
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- Library Changes
- PEP 3101: A New Approach To String Formatting
- Changes To Exceptions
- Miscellaneous Other Changes
- Build and C API Changes
- 性能
- Porting To Python 3.0
- What's New in Python 2.7
- The Future for Python 2.x
- Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
- Python 3.1 Features
- PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
- PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
- PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
- PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
- PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
- PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
- 其他语言特性修改
- New and Improved Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.7
- New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
- Acknowledgements
- Python 2.6 有什么新变化
- Python 3.0
- Changes to the Development Process
- PEP 343: The 'with' statement
- PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
- PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory
- PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package
- PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
- PEP 3105: print As a Function
- PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
- PEP 3112: Byte Literals
- PEP 3116: New I/O Library
- PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
- PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
- PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
- PEP 3129: Class Decorators
- PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
- 其他语言特性修改
- New and Improved Modules
- Deprecations and Removals
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.6
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.5
- PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
- PEP 309: Partial Function Application
- PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
- PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
- PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
- PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
- PEP 342: New Generator Features
- PEP 343: The 'with' statement
- PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
- PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
- PEP 357: The 'index' method
- 其他语言特性修改
- New, Improved, and Removed Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.5
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.4
- PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 289: Generator Expressions
- PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
- PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
- PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
- PEP 324: New subprocess Module
- PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
- PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
- PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
- 其他语言特性修改
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.4
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.3
- PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
- PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
- PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
- PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
- PEP 279: enumerate()
- PEP 282: The logging Package
- PEP 285: A Boolean Type
- PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
- PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
- PEP 302: New Import Hooks
- PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
- PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
- Extended Slices
- 其他语言特性修改
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.3
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.2
- 概述
- PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
- PEP 234: Iterators
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
- Unicode Changes
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- New and Improved Modules
- Interpreter Changes and Fixes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.1
- 概述
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- PEP 236: future Directives
- PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
- PEP 230: Warning Framework
- PEP 229: New Build System
- PEP 205: Weak References
- PEP 232: Function Attributes
- PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
- PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
- PEP 208: New Coercion Model
- PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
- New and Improved Modules
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.0
- 概述
- What About Python 1.6?
- New Development Process
- Unicode
- 列表推导式
- Augmented Assignment
- 字符串的方法
- Garbage Collection of Cycles
- Other Core Changes
- Porting to 2.0
- Extending/Embedding Changes
- Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
- XML Modules
- Module changes
- New modules
- IDLE Improvements
- Deleted and Deprecated Modules
- Acknowledgements
- 更新日志
- Python 下一版
- Python 3.7.3 最终版
- Python 3.7.3 发布候选版 1
- Python 3.7.2 最终版
- Python 3.7.2 发布候选版 1
- Python 3.7.1 最终版
- Python 3.7.1 RC 2版本
- Python 3.7.1 发布候选版 1
- Python 3.7.0 正式版
- Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1
- Python 3.7.0 beta 5
- Python 3.7.0 beta 4
- Python 3.7.0 beta 3
- Python 3.7.0 beta 2
- Python 3.7.0 beta 1
- Python 3.7.0 alpha 4
- Python 3.7.0 alpha 3
- Python 3.7.0 alpha 2
- Python 3.7.0 alpha 1
- Python 3.6.6 final
- Python 3.6.6 RC 1
- Python 3.6.5 final
- Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.4 final
- Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.3 final
- Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.2 final
- Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2
- Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.1 final
- Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.0 final
- Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2
- Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.0 beta 4
- Python 3.6.0 beta 3
- Python 3.6.0 beta 2
- Python 3.6.0 beta 1
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 4
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 3
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 2
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 1
- Python 3.5.5 final
- Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.4 final
- Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.3 final
- Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.2 final
- Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.1 final
- Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.0 final
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.0 beta 4
- Python 3.5.0 beta 3
- Python 3.5.0 beta 2
- Python 3.5.0 beta 1
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 4
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 3
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 2
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 1
- Python 教程
- 课前甜点
- 使用 Python 解释器
- 调用解释器
- 解释器的运行环境
- Python 的非正式介绍
- Python 作为计算器使用
- 走向编程的第一步
- 其他流程控制工具
- if 语句
- for 语句
- range() 函数
- break 和 continue 语句，以及循环中的 else 子句
- pass 语句
- 定义函数
- 函数定义的更多形式
- 小插曲：编码风格
- 数据结构
- 列表的更多特性
- del 语句
- 元组和序列
- 集合
- 字典
- 循环的技巧
- 深入条件控制
- 序列和其它类型的比较
- 模块
- 有关模块的更多信息
- 标准模块
- dir() 函数
- 包
- 输入输出
- 更漂亮的输出格式
- 读写文件
- 错误和异常
- 语法错误
- 异常
- 处理异常
- 抛出异常
- 用户自定义异常
- 定义清理操作
- 预定义的清理操作
- 类
- 名称和对象
- Python 作用域和命名空间
- 初探类
- 补充说明
- 继承
- 私有变量
- 杂项说明
- 迭代器
- 生成器
- 生成器表达式
- 标准库简介
- 操作系统接口
- 文件通配符
- 命令行参数
- 错误输出重定向和程序终止
- 字符串模式匹配
- 数学
- 互联网访问
- 日期和时间
- 数据压缩
- 性能测量
- 质量控制
- 自带电池
- 标准库简介 —— 第二部分
- 格式化输出
- 模板
- 使用二进制数据记录格式
- 多线程
- 日志
- 弱引用
- 用于操作列表的工具
- 十进制浮点运算
- 虚拟环境和包
- 概述
- 创建虚拟环境
- 使用pip管理包
- 接下来？
- 交互式编辑和编辑历史
- Tab 补全和编辑历史
- 默认交互式解释器的替代品
- 浮点算术：争议和限制
- 表示性错误
- 附录
- 交互模式
- 安装和使用 Python
- 命令行与环境
- 命令行
- 环境变量
- 在Unix平台中使用Python
- 获取最新版本的Python
- 构建Python
- 与Python相关的路径和文件
- 杂项
- 编辑器和集成开发环境
- 在Windows上使用 Python
- 完整安装程序
- Microsoft Store包
- nuget.org 安装包
- 可嵌入的包
- 替代捆绑包
- 配置Python
- 适用于Windows的Python启动器
- 查找模块
- 附加模块
- 在Windows上编译Python
- 其他平台
- 在苹果系统上使用 Python
- 获取和安装 MacPython
- IDE
- 安装额外的 Python 包
- Mac 上的图形界面编程
- 在 Mac 上分发 Python 应用程序
- 其他资源
- Python 语言参考
- 概述
- 其他实现
- 标注
- 词法分析
- 行结构
- 其他形符
- 标识符和关键字
- 字面值
- 运算符
- 分隔符
- 数据模型
- 对象、值与类型
- 标准类型层级结构
- 特殊方法名称
- 协程
- 执行模型
- 程序的结构
- 命名与绑定
- 异常
- 导入系统
- importlib
- 包
- 搜索
- 加载
- 基于路径的查找器
- 替换标准导入系统
- Package Relative Imports
- 有关 main 的特殊事项
- 开放问题项
- 参考文献
- 表达式
- 算术转换
- 原子
- 原型
- await 表达式
- 幂运算符
- 一元算术和位运算
- 二元算术运算符
- 移位运算
- 二元位运算
- 比较运算
- 布尔运算
- 条件表达式
- lambda 表达式
- 表达式列表
- 求值顺序
- 运算符优先级
- 简单语句
- 表达式语句
- 赋值语句
- assert 语句
- pass 语句
- del 语句
- return 语句
- yield 语句
- raise 语句
- break 语句
- continue 语句
- import 语句
- global 语句
- nonlocal 语句
- 复合语句
- if 语句
- while 语句
- for 语句
- try 语句
- with 语句
- 函数定义
- 类定义
- 协程
- 最高层级组件
- 完整的 Python 程序
- 文件输入
- 交互式输入
- 表达式输入
- 完整的语法规范
- Python 标准库
- 概述
- 可用性注释
- 内置函数
- 内置常量
- 由 site 模块添加的常量
- 内置类型
- 逻辑值检测
- 布尔运算 — and, or, not
- 比较
- 数字类型 — int, float, complex
- 迭代器类型
- 序列类型 — list, tuple, range
- 文本序列类型 — str
- 二进制序列类型 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview
- 集合类型 — set, frozenset
- 映射类型 — dict
- 上下文管理器类型
- 其他内置类型
- 特殊属性
- 内置异常
- 基类
- 具体异常
- 警告
- 异常层次结构
- 文本处理服务
- string — 常见的字符串操作
- re — 正则表达式操作
- 模块 difflib 是一个计算差异的助手
- textwrap — Text wrapping and filling
- unicodedata — Unicode 数据库
- stringprep — Internet String Preparation
- readline — GNU readline interface
- rlcompleter — GNU readline的完成函数
- 二进制数据服务
- struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data
- codecs — Codec registry and base classes
- 数据类型
- datetime — 基础日期/时间数据类型
- calendar — General calendar-related functions
- collections — 容器数据类型
- collections.abc — 容器的抽象基类
- heapq — 堆队列算法
- bisect — Array bisection algorithm
- array — Efficient arrays of numeric values
- weakref — 弱引用
- types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
- copy — 浅层 (shallow) 和深层 (deep) 复制操作
- pprint — 数据美化输出
- reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation
- enum — Support for enumerations
- 数字和数学模块
- numbers — 数字的抽象基类
- math — 数学函数
- cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
- decimal — 十进制定点和浮点运算
- fractions — 分数
- random — 生成伪随机数
- statistics — Mathematical statistics functions
- 函数式编程模块
- itertools — 为高效循环而创建迭代器的函数
- functools — 高阶函数和可调用对象上的操作
- operator — 标准运算符替代函数
- 文件和目录访问
- pathlib — 面向对象的文件系统路径
- os.path — 常见路径操作
- fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
- stat — Interpreting stat() results
- filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons
- tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories
- glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion
- fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching
- linecache — Random access to text lines
- shutil — High-level file operations
- macpath — Mac OS 9 路径操作函数
- 数据持久化
- pickle —— Python 对象序列化
- copyreg — Register pickle support functions
- shelve — Python object persistence
- marshal — Internal Python object serialization
- dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”
- sqlite3 — SQLite 数据库 DB-API 2.0 接口模块
- 数据压缩和存档
- zlib — 与 gzip 兼容的压缩
- gzip — 对 gzip 格式的支持
- bz2 — 对 bzip2 压缩算法的支持
- lzma — 用 LZMA 算法压缩
- zipfile — 在 ZIP 归档中工作
- tarfile — Read and write tar archive files
- 文件格式
- csv — CSV 文件读写
- configparser — Configuration file parser
- netrc — netrc file processing
- xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data
- plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files
- 加密服务
- hashlib — 安全哈希与消息摘要
- hmac — 基于密钥的消息验证
- secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
- 通用操作系统服务
- os — 操作系统接口模块
- io — 处理流的核心工具
- time — 时间的访问和转换
- argparse — 命令行选项、参数和子命令解析器
- getopt — C-style parser for command line options
- 模块 logging — Python 的日志记录工具
- logging.config — 日志记录配置
- logging.handlers — Logging handlers
- getpass — 便携式密码输入工具
- curses — 终端字符单元显示的处理
- curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs
- curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters
- curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses
- platform — Access to underlying platform's identifying data
- errno — Standard errno system symbols
- ctypes — Python 的外部函数库
- 并发执行
- threading — 基于线程的并行
- multiprocessing — 基于进程的并行
- concurrent 包
- concurrent.futures — 启动并行任务
- subprocess — 子进程管理
- sched — 事件调度器
- queue — 一个同步的队列类
- _thread — 底层多线程 API
- _dummy_thread — _thread 的替代模块
- dummy_threading — 可直接替代 threading 模块。
- contextvars — Context Variables
- Context Variables
- Manual Context Management
- asyncio support
- 网络和进程间通信
- asyncio — 异步 I/O
- socket — 底层网络接口
- ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
- select — Waiting for I/O completion
- selectors — 高级 I/O 复用库
- asyncore — 异步socket处理器
- asynchat — 异步 socket 指令/响应 处理器
- signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events
- mmap — Memory-mapped file support
- 互联网数据处理
- email — 电子邮件与 MIME 处理包
- json — JSON 编码和解码器
- mailcap — Mailcap file handling
- mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
- mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types
- base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 数据编码
- binhex — 对binhex4文件进行编码和解码
- binascii — 二进制和 ASCII 码互转
- quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
- uu — Encode and decode uuencode files
- 结构化标记处理工具
- html — 超文本标记语言支持
- html.parser — 简单的 HTML 和 XHTML 解析器
- html.entities — HTML 一般实体的定义
- XML处理模块
- xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API
- xml.dom — The Document Object Model API
- xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation
- xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees
- xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers
- xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers
- xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities
- xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers
- xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat
- 互联网协议和支持
- webbrowser — 方便的Web浏览器控制器
- cgi — Common Gateway Interface support
- cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts
- wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
- urllib — URL 处理模块
- urllib.request — 用于打开 URL 的可扩展库
- urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib
- urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components
- urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request
- urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt
- http — HTTP 模块
- http.client — HTTP协议客户端
- ftplib — FTP protocol client
- poplib — POP3 protocol client
- imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client
- nntplib — NNTP protocol client
- smtplib —SMTP协议客户端
- smtpd — SMTP Server
- telnetlib — Telnet client
- uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122
- socketserver — A framework for network servers
- http.server — HTTP 服务器
- http.cookies — HTTP state management
- http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients
- xmlrpc — XMLRPC 服务端与客户端模块
- xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access
- xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers
- ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
- 多媒体服务
- audioop — Manipulate raw audio data
- aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
- sunau — 读写 Sun AU 文件
- wave — 读写WAV格式文件
- chunk — Read IFF chunked data
- colorsys — Conversions between color systems
- imghdr — 推测图像类型
- sndhdr — 推测声音文件的类型
- ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
- 国际化
- gettext — 多语种国际化服务
- locale — 国际化服务
- 程序框架
- turtle — 海龟绘图
- cmd — 支持面向行的命令解释器
- shlex — Simple lexical analysis
- Tk图形用户界面(GUI)
- tkinter — Tcl/Tk的Python接口
- tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets
- tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk
- tkinter.scrolledtext — 滚动文字控件
- IDLE
- 其他图形用户界面（GUI）包
- 开发工具
- typing — 类型标注支持
- pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system
- doctest — Test interactive Python examples
- unittest — 单元测试框架
- unittest.mock — mock object library
- unittest.mock 上手指南
- 2to3 - 自动将 Python 2 代码转为 Python 3 代码
- test — Regression tests package for Python
- test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite
- test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests
- 调试和分析
- bdb — Debugger framework
- faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback
- pdb — The Python Debugger
- The Python Profilers
- timeit — 测量小代码片段的执行时间
- trace — Trace or track Python statement execution
- tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations
- 软件打包和分发
- distutils — 构建和安装 Python 模块
- ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer
- venv — 创建虚拟环境
- zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives
- Python运行时服务
- sys — 系统相关的参数和函数
- sysconfig — Provide access to Python's configuration information
- builtins — 内建对象
- main — 顶层脚本环境
- warnings — Warning control
- dataclasses — 数据类
- contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts
- abc — 抽象基类
- atexit — 退出处理器
- traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback
- future — Future 语句定义
- gc — 垃圾回收器接口
- inspect — 检查对象
- site — Site-specific configuration hook
- 自定义 Python 解释器
- code — Interpreter base classes
- codeop — Compile Python code
- 导入模块
- zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives
- pkgutil — Package extension utility
- modulefinder — 查找脚本使用的模块
- runpy — Locating and executing Python modules
- importlib — The implementation of import
- Python 语言服务
- parser — Access Python parse trees
- ast — 抽象语法树
- symtable — Access to the compiler's symbol tables
- symbol — 与 Python 解析树一起使用的常量
- token — 与Python解析树一起使用的常量
- keyword — 检验Python关键字
- tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source
- tabnanny — 模糊缩进检测
- pyclbr — Python class browser support
- py_compile — Compile Python source files
- compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries
- dis — Python 字节码反汇编器
- pickletools — Tools for pickle developers
- 杂项服务
- formatter — Generic output formatting
- Windows系统相关模块
- msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files
- msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
- winreg — Windows 注册表访问
- winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows
- Unix 专有服务
- posix — The most common POSIX system calls
- pwd — 用户密码数据库
- spwd — The shadow password database
- grp — The group database
- crypt — Function to check Unix passwords
- termios — POSIX style tty control
- tty — 终端控制功能
- pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities
- fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls
- pipes — Interface to shell pipelines
- resource — Resource usage information
- nis — Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages)
- Unix syslog 库例程
- 被取代的模块
- optparse — Parser for command line options
- imp — Access the import internals
- 未创建文档的模块
- 平台特定模块
- 扩展和嵌入 Python 解释器
- 推荐的第三方工具
- 不使用第三方工具创建扩展
- 使用 C 或 C++ 扩展 Python
- 自定义扩展类型：教程
- 定义扩展类型：已分类主题
- 构建C/C++扩展
- 在Windows平台编译C和C++扩展
- 在更大的应用程序中嵌入 CPython 运行时
- Embedding Python in Another Application
- Python/C API 参考手册
- 概述
- 代码标准
- 包含文件
- 有用的宏
- 对象、类型和引用计数
- 异常
- 嵌入Python
- 调试构建
- 稳定的应用程序二进制接口
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- 异常处理
- Printing and clearing
- 抛出异常
- Issuing warnings
- Querying the error indicator
- Signal Handling
- Exception Classes
- Exception Objects
- Unicode Exception Objects
- Recursion Control
- 标准异常
- 标准警告类别
- 工具
- 操作系统实用程序
- 系统功能
- 过程控制
- 导入模块
- Data marshalling support
- 语句解释及变量编译
- 字符串转换与格式化
- 反射
- 编解码器注册与支持功能
- 抽象对象层
- Object Protocol
- 数字协议
- Sequence Protocol
- Mapping Protocol
- 迭代器协议
- 缓冲协议
- Old Buffer Protocol
- 具体的对象层
- 基本对象
- 数值对象
- 序列对象
- 容器对象
- 函数对象
- 其他对象
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- 在Python初始化之前
- 全局配置变量
- Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
- Process-wide parameters
- Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
- Sub-interpreter support
- Asynchronous Notifications
- Profiling and Tracing
- Advanced Debugger Support
- Thread Local Storage Support
- 内存管理
- 概述
- 原始内存接口
- Memory Interface
- 对象分配器
- 默认内存分配器
- Customize Memory Allocators
- The pymalloc allocator
- tracemalloc C API
- 示例
- 对象实现支持
- 在堆中分配对象
- Common Object Structures
- Type 对象
- Number Object Structures
- Mapping Object Structures
- Sequence Object Structures
- Buffer Object Structures
- Async Object Structures
- 使对象类型支持循环垃圾回收
- API 和 ABI 版本管理
- 分发 Python 模块
- 关键术语
- 开源许可与协作
- 安装工具
- 阅读指南
- 我该如何...？
- ...为我的项目选择一个名字？
- ...创建和分发二进制扩展？
- 安装 Python 模块
- 关键术语
- 基本使用
- 我应如何 ...？
- ... 在 Python 3.4 之前的 Python 版本中安装 pip ？
- ... 只为当前用户安装软件包？
- ... 安装科学计算类 Python 软件包？
- ... 使用并行安装的多个 Python 版本？
- 常见的安装问题
- 在 Linux 的系统 Python 版本上安装
- 未安装 pip
- 安装二进制编译扩展
- Python 常用指引
- 将 Python 2 代码迁移到 Python 3
- 简要说明
- 详情
- 将扩展模块移植到 Python 3
- 条件编译
- 对象API的更改
- 模块初始化和状态
- CObject 替换为 Capsule
- 其他选项
- Curses Programming with Python
- What is curses?
- Starting and ending a curses application
- Windows and Pads
- Displaying Text
- User Input
- For More Information
- 实现描述器
- 摘要
- 定义和简介
- 描述器协议
- 发起调用描述符
- 描述符示例
- Properties
- 函数和方法
- Static Methods and Class Methods
- 函数式编程指引
- 概述
- 迭代器
- 生成器表达式和列表推导式
- 生成器
- 内置函数
- itertools 模块
- The functools module
- Small functions and the lambda expression
- Revision History and Acknowledgements
- 引用文献
- 日志 HOWTO
- 日志基础教程
- 进阶日志教程
- 日志级别
- 有用的处理程序
- 记录日志中引发的异常
- 使用任意对象作为消息
- 优化
- 日志操作手册
- 在多个模块中使用日志
- 在多线程中使用日志
- 使用多个日志处理器和多种格式化
- 在多个地方记录日志
- 日志服务器配置示例
- 处理日志处理器的阻塞
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- Use of alternative formatting styles
- Customizing LogRecord
- Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
- Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
- A more elaborate multiprocessing example
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Customizing handlers with dictConfig()
- Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
- Configuring filters with dictConfig()
- Customized exception formatting
- Speaking logging messages
- Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
- Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
- Using a context manager for selective logging
- 正则表达式HOWTO
- 概述
- 简单模式
- 使用正则表达式
- 更多模式能力
- 修改字符串
- 常见问题
- 反馈
- 套接字编程指南
- 套接字
- 创建套接字
- 使用一个套接字
- 断开连接
- 非阻塞的套接字
- 排序指南
- 基本排序
- 关键函数
- Operator 模块函数
- 升序和降序
- 排序稳定性和排序复杂度
- 使用装饰-排序-去装饰的旧方法
- 使用 cmp 参数的旧方法
- 其它
- Unicode 指南
- Unicode 概述
- Python's Unicode Support
- Reading and Writing Unicode Data
- Acknowledgements
- 如何使用urllib包获取网络资源
- 概述
- Fetching URLs
- 处理异常
- info and geturl
- Openers and Handlers
- Basic Authentication
- Proxies
- Sockets and Layers
- 脚注
- Argparse 教程
- 概念
- 基础
- 位置参数介绍
- Introducing Optional arguments
- Combining Positional and Optional arguments
- Getting a little more advanced
- Conclusion
- ipaddress模块介绍
- 创建 Address/Network/Interface 对象
- 审查 Address/Network/Interface 对象
- Network 作为 Address 列表
- 比较
- 将IP地址与其他模块一起使用
- 实例创建失败时获取更多详细信息
- Argument Clinic How-To
- The Goals Of Argument Clinic
- Basic Concepts And Usage
- Converting Your First Function
- Advanced Topics
- 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 检测CPython
- Enabling the static markers
- Static DTrace probes
- Static SystemTap markers
- Available static markers
- SystemTap Tapsets
- 示例
- Python 常见问题
- Python常见问题
- 一般信息
- 现实世界中的 Python
- 编程常见问题
- 一般问题
- 核心语言
- 数字和字符串
- 性能
- 序列（元组/列表）
- 对象
- 模块
- 设计和历史常见问题
- 为什么Python使用缩进来分组语句？
- 为什么简单的算术运算得到奇怪的结果？
- 为什么浮点计算不准确？
- 为什么Python字符串是不可变的？
- 为什么必须在方法定义和调用中显式使用“self”？
- 为什么不能在表达式中赋值？
- 为什么Python对某些功能（例如list.index()）使用方法来实现，而其他功能（例如len(List)）使用函数实现？
- 为什么 join()是一个字符串方法而不是列表或元组方法？
- 异常有多快？
- 为什么Python中没有switch或case语句？
- 难道不能在解释器中模拟线程，而非得依赖特定于操作系统的线程实现吗？
- 为什么lambda表达式不能包含语句？
- 可以将Python编译为机器代码，C或其他语言吗？
- Python如何管理内存？
- 为什么CPython不使用更传统的垃圾回收方案？
- CPython退出时为什么不释放所有内存？
- 为什么有单独的元组和列表数据类型？
- 列表是如何在CPython中实现的？
- 字典是如何在CPython中实现的？
- 为什么字典key必须是不可变的？
- 为什么 list.sort() 没有返回排序列表？
- 如何在Python中指定和实施接口规范？
- 为什么没有goto？
- 为什么原始字符串（r-strings）不能以反斜杠结尾？
- 为什么Python没有属性赋值的“with”语句？
- 为什么 if/while/def/class语句需要冒号？
- 为什么Python在列表和元组的末尾允许使用逗号？
- 代码库和插件 FAQ
- 通用的代码库问题
- 通用任务
- 线程相关
- 输入输出
- 网络 / Internet 编程
- 数据库
- 数学和数字
- 扩展/嵌入常见问题
- 可以使用C语言中创建自己的函数吗？
- 可以使用C++语言中创建自己的函数吗？
- C很难写，有没有其他选择？
- 如何从C执行任意Python语句？
- 如何从C中评估任意Python表达式？
- 如何从Python对象中提取C的值？
- 如何使用Py_BuildValue()创建任意长度的元组？
- 如何从C调用对象的方法？
- 如何捕获PyErr_Print()（或打印到stdout / stderr的任何内容）的输出？
- 如何从C访问用Python编写的模块？
- 如何从Python接口到C ++对象？
- 我使用Setup文件添加了一个模块，为什么make失败了？
- 如何调试扩展？
- 我想在Linux系统上编译一个Python模块，但是缺少一些文件。为什么?
- 如何区分“输入不完整”和“输入无效”？
- 如何找到未定义的g++符号__builtin_new或__pure_virtual？
- 能否创建一个对象类，其中部分方法在C中实现，而其他方法在Python中实现（例如通过继承）？
- Python在Windows上的常见问题
- 我怎样在Windows下运行一个Python程序？
- 我怎么让 Python 脚本可执行？
- 为什么有时候 Python 程序会启动缓慢？
- 我怎样使用Python脚本制作可执行文件？
- *.pyd 文件和DLL文件相同吗？
- 我怎样将Python嵌入一个Windows程序？
- 如何让编辑器不要在我的 Python 源代码中插入 tab ？
- 如何在不阻塞的情况下检查按键？
- 图形用户界面（GUI）常见问题
- 图形界面常见问题
- Python 是否有平台无关的图形界面工具包？
- 有哪些Python的GUI工具是某个平台专用的？
- 有关Tkinter的问题
- “为什么我的电脑上安装了 Python ？”
- 什么是Python？
- 为什么我的电脑上安装了 Python ？
- 我能删除 Python 吗？
- 术语对照表
- 文档说明
- Python 文档贡献者
- 解决 Bug
- 文档错误
- 使用 Python 的错误追踪系统
- 开始为 Python 贡献您的知识
- 版权
- 历史和许可证
- 软件历史
- 访问Python或以其他方式使用Python的条款和条件
- Python 3.7.3 的 PSF 许可协议
- Python 2.0 的 BeOpen.com 许可协议
- Python 1.6.1 的 CNRI 许可协议
- Python 0.9.0 至 1.2 的 CWI 许可协议
- 集成软件的许可和认可
- Mersenne Twister
- 套接字
- Asynchronous socket services
- Cookie management
- Execution tracing
- UUencode and UUdecode functions
- XML Remote Procedure Calls
- test_epoll
- Select kqueue
- SipHash24
- strtod and dtoa
- OpenSSL
- expat
- libffi
- zlib
- cfuhash
- libmpdec