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# [`nntplib`](#module-nntplib "nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets).") --- NNTP protocol client
**Source code:** [Lib/nntplib.py](https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/nntplib.py) \[https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/nntplib.py\]
- - - - - -
This module defines the class [`NNTP`](#nntplib.NNTP "nntplib.NNTP") which implements the client side of the Network News Transfer Protocol. It can be used to implement a news reader or poster, or automated news processors. It is compatible with [**RFC 3977**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html\]as well as the older [**RFC 977**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc977.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc977.html\] and [**RFC 2980**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2980.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2980.html\].
Here are two small examples of how it can be used. To list some statistics about a newsgroup and print the subjects of the last 10 articles:
```
>>> s = nntplib.NNTP('news.gmane.org')
>>> resp, count, first, last, name = s.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
>>> print('Group', name, 'has', count, 'articles, range', first, 'to', last)
Group gmane.comp.python.committers has 1096 articles, range 1 to 1096
>>> resp, overviews = s.over((last - 9, last))
>>> for id, over in overviews:
... print(id, nntplib.decode_header(over['subject']))
...
1087 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
1088 Re: 3.2 alpha 2 freeze
1089 Re: 3.2 alpha 2 freeze
1090 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
1091 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
1092 Updated ssh key
1093 Re: Updated ssh key
1094 Re: Updated ssh key
1095 Hello fellow committers!
1096 Re: Hello fellow committers!
>>> s.quit()
'205 Bye!'
```
To post an article from a binary file (this assumes that the article has valid headers, and that you have right to post on the particular newsgroup):
```
>>> s = nntplib.NNTP('news.gmane.org')
>>> f = open('article.txt', 'rb')
>>> s.post(f)
'240 Article posted successfully.'
>>> s.quit()
'205 Bye!'
```
The module itself defines the following classes:
*class* `nntplib.``NNTP`(*host*, *port=119*, *user=None*, *password=None*, *readermode=None*, *usenetrc=False*\[, *timeout*\])Return a new [`NNTP`](#nntplib.NNTP "nntplib.NNTP") object, representing a connection to the NNTP server running on host *host*, listening at port *port*. An optional *timeout* can be specified for the socket connection. If the optional *user* and *password* are provided, or if suitable credentials are present in `/.netrc` and the optional flag *usenetrc*is true, the `AUTHINFO USER` and `AUTHINFO PASS` commands are used to identify and authenticate the user to the server. If the optional flag *readermode* is true, then a `mode reader` command is sent before authentication is performed. Reader mode is sometimes necessary if you are connecting to an NNTP server on the local machine and intend to call reader-specific commands, such as `group`. If you get unexpected [`NNTPPermanentError`](#nntplib.NNTPPermanentError "nntplib.NNTPPermanentError")s, you might need to set *readermode*. The [`NNTP`](#nntplib.NNTP "nntplib.NNTP") class supports the [`with`](../reference/compound_stmts.xhtml#with) statement to unconditionally consume [`OSError`](exceptions.xhtml#OSError "OSError") exceptions and to close the NNTP connection when done, e.g.:
```
>>> from nntplib import NNTP
>>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n:
... n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
... # doctest: +SKIP
('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
>>>
```
在 3.2 版更改: *usenetrc* is now `False` by default.
在 3.3 版更改: 支持了 [`with`](../reference/compound_stmts.xhtml#with) 语句。
*class* `nntplib.``NNTP_SSL`(*host*, *port=563*, *user=None*, *password=None*, *ssl\_context=None*, *readermode=None*, *usenetrc=False*\[, *timeout*\])Return a new [`NNTP_SSL`](#nntplib.NNTP_SSL "nntplib.NNTP_SSL") object, representing an encrypted connection to the NNTP server running on host *host*, listening at port *port*. [`NNTP_SSL`](#nntplib.NNTP_SSL "nntplib.NNTP_SSL") objects have the same methods as [`NNTP`](#nntplib.NNTP "nntplib.NNTP") objects. If *port* is omitted, port 563 (NNTPS) is used. *ssl\_context* is also optional, and is a [`SSLContext`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext "ssl.SSLContext") object. Please read [Security considerations](ssl.xhtml#ssl-security) for best practices. All other parameters behave the same as for [`NNTP`](#nntplib.NNTP "nntplib.NNTP").
Note that SSL-on-563 is discouraged per [**RFC 4642**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4642.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4642.html\], in favor of STARTTLS as described below. However, some servers only support the former.
3\.2 新版功能.
在 3.4 版更改: The class now supports hostname check with [`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname "ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname") and *Server Name Indication* (see [`ssl.HAS_SNI`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.HAS_SNI "ssl.HAS_SNI")).
*exception* `nntplib.``NNTPError`Derived from the standard exception [`Exception`](exceptions.xhtml#Exception "Exception"), this is the base class for all exceptions raised by the [`nntplib`](#module-nntplib "nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets).") module. Instances of this class have the following attribute:
`response`The response of the server if available, as a [`str`](stdtypes.xhtml#str "str") object.
*exception* `nntplib.``NNTPReplyError`Exception raised when an unexpected reply is received from the server.
*exception* `nntplib.``NNTPTemporaryError`Exception raised when a response code in the range 400--499 is received.
*exception* `nntplib.``NNTPPermanentError`Exception raised when a response code in the range 500--599 is received.
*exception* `nntplib.``NNTPProtocolError`Exception raised when a reply is received from the server that does not begin with a digit in the range 1--5.
*exception* `nntplib.``NNTPDataError`Exception raised when there is some error in the response data.
## NNTP Objects
When connected, [`NNTP`](#nntplib.NNTP "nntplib.NNTP") and [`NNTP_SSL`](#nntplib.NNTP_SSL "nntplib.NNTP_SSL") objects support the following methods and attributes.
### Attributes
`NNTP.``nntp_version`An integer representing the version of the NNTP protocol supported by the server. In practice, this should be `2` for servers advertising [**RFC 3977**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html\] compliance and `1` for others.
3\.2 新版功能.
`NNTP.``nntp_implementation`A string describing the software name and version of the NNTP server, or [`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None") if not advertised by the server.
3\.2 新版功能.
### 方法
The *response* that is returned as the first item in the return tuple of almost all methods is the server's response: a string beginning with a three-digit code. If the server's response indicates an error, the method raises one of the above exceptions.
Many of the following methods take an optional keyword-only argument *file*. When the *file* argument is supplied, it must be either a [file object](../glossary.xhtml#term-file-object)opened for binary writing, or the name of an on-disk file to be written to. The method will then write any data returned by the server (except for the response line and the terminating dot) to the file; any list of lines, tuples or objects that the method normally returns will be empty.
在 3.2 版更改: Many of the following methods have been reworked and fixed, which makes them incompatible with their 3.1 counterparts.
`NNTP.``quit`()Send a `QUIT` command and close the connection. Once this method has been called, no other methods of the NNTP object should be called.
`NNTP.``getwelcome`()Return the welcome message sent by the server in reply to the initial connection. (This message sometimes contains disclaimers or help information that may be relevant to the user.)
`NNTP.``getcapabilities`()Return the [**RFC 3977**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html\] capabilities advertised by the server, as a [`dict`](stdtypes.xhtml#dict "dict") instance mapping capability names to (possibly empty) lists of values. On legacy servers which don't understand the `CAPABILITIES`command, an empty dictionary is returned instead.
```
>>> s = NNTP('news.gmane.org')
>>> 'POST' in s.getcapabilities()
True
```
3\.2 新版功能.
`NNTP.``login`(*user=None*, *password=None*, *usenetrc=True*)Send `AUTHINFO` commands with the user name and password. If *user*and *password* are `None` and *usenetrc* is true, credentials from `~/.netrc` will be used if possible.
Unless intentionally delayed, login is normally performed during the [`NNTP`](#nntplib.NNTP "nntplib.NNTP") object initialization and separately calling this function is unnecessary. To force authentication to be delayed, you must not set *user* or *password* when creating the object, and must set *usenetrc* to False.
3\.2 新版功能.
`NNTP.``starttls`(*context=None*)Send a `STARTTLS` command. This will enable encryption on the NNTP connection. The *context* argument is optional and should be a [`ssl.SSLContext`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext "ssl.SSLContext") object. Please read [Security considerations](ssl.xhtml#ssl-security) for best practices.
Note that this may not be done after authentication information has been transmitted, and authentication occurs by default if possible during a [`NNTP`](#nntplib.NNTP "nntplib.NNTP") object initialization. See [`NNTP.login()`](#nntplib.NNTP.login "nntplib.NNTP.login") for information on suppressing this behavior.
3\.2 新版功能.
在 3.4 版更改: The method now supports hostname check with [`ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname "ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname") and *Server Name Indication* (see [`ssl.HAS_SNI`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.HAS_SNI "ssl.HAS_SNI")).
`NNTP.``newgroups`(*date*, *\**, *file=None*)Send a `NEWGROUPS` command. The *date* argument should be a [`datetime.date`](datetime.xhtml#datetime.date "datetime.date") or [`datetime.datetime`](datetime.xhtml#datetime.datetime "datetime.datetime") object. Return a pair `(response, groups)` where *groups* is a list representing the groups that are new since the given *date*. If *file* is supplied, though, then *groups* will be empty.
```
>>> from datetime import date, timedelta
>>> resp, groups = s.newgroups(date.today() - timedelta(days=3))
>>> len(groups) # doctest: +SKIP
85
>>> groups[0] # doctest: +SKIP
GroupInfo(group='gmane.network.tor.devel', last='4', first='1', flag='m')
```
`NNTP.``newnews`(*group*, *date*, *\**, *file=None*)Send a `NEWNEWS` command. Here, *group* is a group name or `'*'`, and *date* has the same meaning as for [`newgroups()`](#nntplib.NNTP.newgroups "nntplib.NNTP.newgroups"). Return a pair `(response, articles)` where *articles* is a list of message ids.
This command is frequently disabled by NNTP server administrators.
`NNTP.``list`(*group\_pattern=None*, *\**, *file=None*)Send a `LIST` or `LIST ACTIVE` command. Return a pair `(response, list)` where *list* is a list of tuples representing all the groups available from this NNTP server, optionally matching the pattern string *group\_pattern*. Each tuple has the form `(group, last, first, flag)`, where *group* is a group name, *last*and *first* are the last and first article numbers, and *flag* usually takes one of these values:
- `y`: Local postings and articles from peers are allowed.
- `m`: The group is moderated and all postings must be approved.
- `n`: No local postings are allowed, only articles from peers.
- `j`: Articles from peers are filed in the junk group instead.
- `x`: No local postings, and articles from peers are ignored.
- `=foo.bar`: Articles are filed in the `foo.bar` group instead.
If *flag* has another value, then the status of the newsgroup should be considered unknown.
This command can return very large results, especially if *group\_pattern*is not specified. It is best to cache the results offline unless you really need to refresh them.
在 3.2 版更改: *group\_pattern* was added.
`NNTP.``descriptions`(*grouppattern*)Send a `LIST NEWSGROUPS` command, where *grouppattern* is a wildmat string as specified in [**RFC 3977**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html\] (it's essentially the same as DOS or UNIX shell wildcard strings). Return a pair `(response, descriptions)`, where *descriptions*is a dictionary mapping group names to textual descriptions.
```
>>> resp, descs = s.descriptions('gmane.comp.python.*')
>>> len(descs) # doctest: +SKIP
295
>>> descs.popitem() # doctest: +SKIP
('gmane.comp.python.bio.general', 'BioPython discussion list (Moderated)')
```
`NNTP.``description`(*group*)Get a description for a single group *group*. If more than one group matches (if 'group' is a real wildmat string), return the first match. If no group matches, return an empty string.
This elides the response code from the server. If the response code is needed, use [`descriptions()`](#nntplib.NNTP.descriptions "nntplib.NNTP.descriptions").
`NNTP.``group`(*name*)Send a `GROUP` command, where *name* is the group name. The group is selected as the current group, if it exists. Return a tuple `(response, count, first, last, name)` where *count* is the (estimated) number of articles in the group, *first* is the first article number in the group, *last* is the last article number in the group, and *name*is the group name.
`NNTP.``over`(*message\_spec*, *\**, *file=None*)Send an `OVER` command, or an `XOVER` command on legacy servers. *message\_spec* can be either a string representing a message id, or a `(first, last)` tuple of numbers indicating a range of articles in the current group, or a `(first, None)` tuple indicating a range of articles starting from *first* to the last article in the current group, or [`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None") to select the current article in the current group.
Return a pair `(response, overviews)`. *overviews* is a list of `(article_number, overview)` tuples, one for each article selected by *message\_spec*. Each *overview* is a dictionary with the same number of items, but this number depends on the server. These items are either message headers (the key is then the lower-cased header name) or metadata items (the key is then the metadata name prepended with `":"`). The following items are guaranteed to be present by the NNTP specification:
- the `subject`, `from`, `date`, `message-id` and `references`headers
- the `:bytes` metadata: the number of bytes in the entire raw article (including headers and body)
- the `:lines` metadata: the number of lines in the article body
The value of each item is either a string, or [`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None") if not present.
It is advisable to use the [`decode_header()`](#nntplib.decode_header "nntplib.decode_header") function on header values when they may contain non-ASCII characters:
```
>>> _, _, first, last, _ = s.group('gmane.comp.python.devel')
>>> resp, overviews = s.over((last, last))
>>> art_num, over = overviews[0]
>>> art_num
117216
>>> list(over.keys())
['xref', 'from', ':lines', ':bytes', 'references', 'date', 'message-id', 'subject']
>>> over['from']
'=?UTF-8?B?Ik1hcnRpbiB2LiBMw7Z3aXMi?= <martin@v.loewis.de>'
>>> nntplib.decode_header(over['from'])
'"Martin v. Löwis" <martin@v.loewis.de>'
```
3\.2 新版功能.
`NNTP.``help`(*\**, *file=None*)Send a `HELP` command. Return a pair `(response, list)` where *list* is a list of help strings.
`NNTP.``stat`(*message\_spec=None*)Send a `STAT` command, where *message\_spec* is either a message id (enclosed in `'<'` and `'>'`) or an article number in the current group. If *message\_spec* is omitted or [`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None"), the current article in the current group is considered. Return a triple `(response, number, id)`where *number* is the article number and *id* is the message id.
```
>>> _, _, first, last, _ = s.group('gmane.comp.python.devel')
>>> resp, number, message_id = s.stat(first)
>>> number, message_id
(9099, '<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>')
```
`NNTP.``next`()Send a `NEXT` command. Return as for [`stat()`](#nntplib.NNTP.stat "nntplib.NNTP.stat").
`NNTP.``last`()Send a `LAST` command. Return as for [`stat()`](#nntplib.NNTP.stat "nntplib.NNTP.stat").
`NNTP.``article`(*message\_spec=None*, *\**, *file=None*)Send an `ARTICLE` command, where *message\_spec* has the same meaning as for [`stat()`](#nntplib.NNTP.stat "nntplib.NNTP.stat"). Return a tuple `(response, info)` where *info*is a [`namedtuple`](collections.xhtml#collections.namedtuple "collections.namedtuple") with three attributes *number*, *message\_id* and *lines* (in that order). *number* is the article number in the group (or 0 if the information is not available), *message\_id* the message id as a string, and *lines* a list of lines (without terminating newlines) comprising the raw message including headers and body.
```
>>> resp, info = s.article('<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>')
>>> info.number
0
>>> info.message_id
'<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>'
>>> len(info.lines)
65
>>> info.lines[0]
b'Path: main.gmane.org!not-for-mail'
>>> info.lines[1]
b'From: Neal Norwitz <neal@metaslash.com>'
>>> info.lines[-3:]
[b'There is a patch for 2.3 as well as 2.2.', b'', b'Neal']
```
`NNTP.``head`(*message\_spec=None*, *\**, *file=None*)Same as [`article()`](#nntplib.NNTP.article "nntplib.NNTP.article"), but sends a `HEAD` command. The *lines*returned (or written to *file*) will only contain the message headers, not the body.
`NNTP.``body`(*message\_spec=None*, *\**, *file=None*)Same as [`article()`](#nntplib.NNTP.article "nntplib.NNTP.article"), but sends a `BODY` command. The *lines*returned (or written to *file*) will only contain the message body, not the headers.
`NNTP.``post`(*data*)Post an article using the `POST` command. The *data* argument is either a [file object](../glossary.xhtml#term-file-object) opened for binary reading, or any iterable of bytes objects (representing raw lines of the article to be posted). It should represent a well-formed news article, including the required headers. The [`post()`](#nntplib.NNTP.post "nntplib.NNTP.post") method automatically escapes lines beginning with `.` and appends the termination line.
If the method succeeds, the server's response is returned. If the server refuses posting, a [`NNTPReplyError`](#nntplib.NNTPReplyError "nntplib.NNTPReplyError") is raised.
`NNTP.``ihave`(*message\_id*, *data*)Send an `IHAVE` command. *message\_id* is the id of the message to send to the server (enclosed in `'<'` and `'>'`). The *data* parameter and the return value are the same as for [`post()`](#nntplib.NNTP.post "nntplib.NNTP.post").
`NNTP.``date`()Return a pair `(response, date)`. *date* is a [`datetime`](datetime.xhtml#datetime.datetime "datetime.datetime")object containing the current date and time of the server.
`NNTP.``slave`()Send a `SLAVE` command. Return the server's *response*.
`NNTP.``set_debuglevel`(*level*)Set the instance's debugging level. This controls the amount of debugging output printed. The default, `0`, produces no debugging output. A value of `1` produces a moderate amount of debugging output, generally a single line per request or response. A value of `2` or higher produces the maximum amount of debugging output, logging each line sent and received on the connection (including message text).
The following are optional NNTP extensions defined in [**RFC 2980**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2980.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2980.html\]. Some of them have been superseded by newer commands in [**RFC 3977**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3977.html\].
`NNTP.``xhdr`(*hdr*, *str*, *\**, *file=None*)Send an `XHDR` command. The *hdr* argument is a header keyword, e.g. `'subject'`. The *str* argument should have the form `'first-last'`where *first* and *last* are the first and last article numbers to search. Return a pair `(response, list)`, where *list* is a list of pairs
```
(id,
text)
```
, where *id* is an article number (as a string) and *text* is the text of the requested header for that article. If the *file* parameter is supplied, then the output of the `XHDR` command is stored in a file. If *file* is a string, then the method will open a file with that name, write to it then close it. If *file* is a [file object](../glossary.xhtml#term-file-object), then it will start calling `write()` on it to store the lines of the command output. If *file* is supplied, then the returned *list* is an empty list.
`NNTP.``xover`(*start*, *end*, *\**, *file=None*)Send an `XOVER` command. *start* and *end* are article numbers delimiting the range of articles to select. The return value is the same of for [`over()`](#nntplib.NNTP.over "nntplib.NNTP.over"). It is recommended to use [`over()`](#nntplib.NNTP.over "nntplib.NNTP.over")instead, since it will automatically use the newer `OVER` command if available.
`NNTP.``xpath`(*id*)Return a pair `(resp, path)`, where *path* is the directory path to the article with message ID *id*. Most of the time, this extension is not enabled by NNTP server administrators.
3\.3 版后已移除: The XPATH extension is not actively used.
## Utility functions
The module also defines the following utility function:
`nntplib.``decode_header`(*header\_str*)Decode a header value, un-escaping any escaped non-ASCII characters. *header\_str* must be a [`str`](stdtypes.xhtml#str "str") object. The unescaped value is returned. Using this function is recommended to display some headers in a human readable form:
```
>>> decode_header("Some subject")
'Some subject'
>>> decode_header("=?ISO-8859-15?Q?D=E9buter_en_Python?=")
'Débuter en Python'
>>> decode_header("Re: =?UTF-8?B?cHJvYmzDqG1lIGRlIG1hdHJpY2U=?=")
'Re: problème de matrice'
```
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- Build and C API Changes
- 弃用
- 移除
- Porting to Python 3.5
- Notable changes in Python 3.5.4
- What's New In Python 3.4
- 摘要 - 发布重点
- 新的特性
- 新增模块
- 改进的模块
- CPython Implementation Changes
- 弃用
- 移除
- Porting to Python 3.4
- Changed in 3.4.3
- What's New In Python 3.3
- 摘要 - 发布重点
- PEP 405: Virtual Environments
- PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
- PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
- PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
- PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
- PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
- PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
- PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
- PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
- PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
- PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
- PEP 362: Function Signature Object
- PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation
- Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
- 其他语言特性修改
- A Finer-Grained Import Lock
- Builtin functions and types
- 新增模块
- 改进的模块
- 性能优化
- Build and C API Changes
- 弃用
- Porting to Python 3.3
- What's New In Python 3.2
- PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
- PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
- PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
- PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module
- PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
- PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
- PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
- 其他语言特性修改
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- 多线程
- 性能优化
- Unicode
- Codecs
- 文档
- IDLE
- Code Repository
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 3.2
- What's New In Python 3.1
- PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries
- PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
- 其他语言特性修改
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- 性能优化
- IDLE
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 3.1
- What's New In Python 3.0
- Common Stumbling Blocks
- Overview Of Syntax Changes
- Changes Already Present In Python 2.6
- Library Changes
- PEP 3101: A New Approach To String Formatting
- Changes To Exceptions
- Miscellaneous Other Changes
- Build and C API Changes
- 性能
- Porting To Python 3.0
- What's New in Python 2.7
- The Future for Python 2.x
- Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
- Python 3.1 Features
- PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
- PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
- PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
- PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
- PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
- PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
- 其他语言特性修改
- New and Improved Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.7
- New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
- Acknowledgements
- Python 2.6 有什么新变化
- Python 3.0
- Changes to the Development Process
- PEP 343: The 'with' statement
- PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
- PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory
- PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package
- PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
- PEP 3105: print As a Function
- PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
- PEP 3112: Byte Literals
- PEP 3116: New I/O Library
- PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
- PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
- PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
- PEP 3129: Class Decorators
- PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
- 其他语言特性修改
- New and Improved Modules
- Deprecations and Removals
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.6
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.5
- PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
- PEP 309: Partial Function Application
- PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
- PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
- PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
- PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
- PEP 342: New Generator Features
- PEP 343: The 'with' statement
- PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
- PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
- PEP 357: The 'index' method
- 其他语言特性修改
- New, Improved, and Removed Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.5
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.4
- PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 289: Generator Expressions
- PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
- PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
- PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
- PEP 324: New subprocess Module
- PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
- PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
- PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
- 其他语言特性修改
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.4
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.3
- PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
- PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
- PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
- PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
- PEP 279: enumerate()
- PEP 282: The logging Package
- PEP 285: A Boolean Type
- PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
- PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
- PEP 302: New Import Hooks
- PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
- PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
- Extended Slices
- 其他语言特性修改
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.3
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.2
- 概述
- PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
- PEP 234: Iterators
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
- Unicode Changes
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- New and Improved Modules
- Interpreter Changes and Fixes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.1
- 概述
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- PEP 236: future Directives
- PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
- PEP 230: Warning Framework
- PEP 229: New Build System
- PEP 205: Weak References
- PEP 232: Function Attributes
- PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
- PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
- PEP 208: New Coercion Model
- PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
- New and Improved Modules
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What's New in Python 2.0
- 概述
- What About Python 1.6?
- New Development Process
- Unicode
- 列表推导式
- Augmented Assignment
- 字符串的方法
- Garbage Collection of Cycles
- Other Core Changes
- Porting to 2.0
- Extending/Embedding Changes
- Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
- XML Modules
- Module changes
- New modules
- IDLE Improvements
- Deleted and Deprecated Modules
- Acknowledgements
- 更新日志
- Python 下一版
- Python 3.7.3 最终版
- Python 3.7.3 发布候选版 1
- Python 3.7.2 最终版
- Python 3.7.2 发布候选版 1
- Python 3.7.1 最终版
- Python 3.7.1 RC 2版本
- Python 3.7.1 发布候选版 1
- Python 3.7.0 正式版
- Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1
- Python 3.7.0 beta 5
- Python 3.7.0 beta 4
- Python 3.7.0 beta 3
- Python 3.7.0 beta 2
- Python 3.7.0 beta 1
- Python 3.7.0 alpha 4
- Python 3.7.0 alpha 3
- Python 3.7.0 alpha 2
- Python 3.7.0 alpha 1
- Python 3.6.6 final
- Python 3.6.6 RC 1
- Python 3.6.5 final
- Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.4 final
- Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.3 final
- Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.2 final
- Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2
- Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.1 final
- Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.0 final
- Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2
- Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1
- Python 3.6.0 beta 4
- Python 3.6.0 beta 3
- Python 3.6.0 beta 2
- Python 3.6.0 beta 1
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 4
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 3
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 2
- Python 3.6.0 alpha 1
- Python 3.5.5 final
- Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.4 final
- Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.3 final
- Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.2 final
- Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.1 final
- Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.0 final
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1
- Python 3.5.0 beta 4
- Python 3.5.0 beta 3
- Python 3.5.0 beta 2
- Python 3.5.0 beta 1
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 4
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 3
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 2
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 1
- Python 教程
- 课前甜点
- 使用 Python 解释器
- 调用解释器
- 解释器的运行环境
- Python 的非正式介绍
- Python 作为计算器使用
- 走向编程的第一步
- 其他流程控制工具
- if 语句
- for 语句
- range() 函数
- break 和 continue 语句，以及循环中的 else 子句
- pass 语句
- 定义函数
- 函数定义的更多形式
- 小插曲：编码风格
- 数据结构
- 列表的更多特性
- del 语句
- 元组和序列
- 集合
- 字典
- 循环的技巧
- 深入条件控制
- 序列和其它类型的比较
- 模块
- 有关模块的更多信息
- 标准模块
- dir() 函数
- 包
- 输入输出
- 更漂亮的输出格式
- 读写文件
- 错误和异常
- 语法错误
- 异常
- 处理异常
- 抛出异常
- 用户自定义异常
- 定义清理操作
- 预定义的清理操作
- 类
- 名称和对象
- Python 作用域和命名空间
- 初探类
- 补充说明
- 继承
- 私有变量
- 杂项说明
- 迭代器
- 生成器
- 生成器表达式
- 标准库简介
- 操作系统接口
- 文件通配符
- 命令行参数
- 错误输出重定向和程序终止
- 字符串模式匹配
- 数学
- 互联网访问
- 日期和时间
- 数据压缩
- 性能测量
- 质量控制
- 自带电池
- 标准库简介 —— 第二部分
- 格式化输出
- 模板
- 使用二进制数据记录格式
- 多线程
- 日志
- 弱引用
- 用于操作列表的工具
- 十进制浮点运算
- 虚拟环境和包
- 概述
- 创建虚拟环境
- 使用pip管理包
- 接下来？
- 交互式编辑和编辑历史
- Tab 补全和编辑历史
- 默认交互式解释器的替代品
- 浮点算术：争议和限制
- 表示性错误
- 附录
- 交互模式
- 安装和使用 Python
- 命令行与环境
- 命令行
- 环境变量
- 在Unix平台中使用Python
- 获取最新版本的Python
- 构建Python
- 与Python相关的路径和文件
- 杂项
- 编辑器和集成开发环境
- 在Windows上使用 Python
- 完整安装程序
- Microsoft Store包
- nuget.org 安装包
- 可嵌入的包
- 替代捆绑包
- 配置Python
- 适用于Windows的Python启动器
- 查找模块
- 附加模块
- 在Windows上编译Python
- 其他平台
- 在苹果系统上使用 Python
- 获取和安装 MacPython
- IDE
- 安装额外的 Python 包
- Mac 上的图形界面编程
- 在 Mac 上分发 Python 应用程序
- 其他资源
- Python 语言参考
- 概述
- 其他实现
- 标注
- 词法分析
- 行结构
- 其他形符
- 标识符和关键字
- 字面值
- 运算符
- 分隔符
- 数据模型
- 对象、值与类型
- 标准类型层级结构
- 特殊方法名称
- 协程
- 执行模型
- 程序的结构
- 命名与绑定
- 异常
- 导入系统
- importlib
- 包
- 搜索
- 加载
- 基于路径的查找器
- 替换标准导入系统
- Package Relative Imports
- 有关 main 的特殊事项
- 开放问题项
- 参考文献
- 表达式
- 算术转换
- 原子
- 原型
- await 表达式
- 幂运算符
- 一元算术和位运算
- 二元算术运算符
- 移位运算
- 二元位运算
- 比较运算
- 布尔运算
- 条件表达式
- lambda 表达式
- 表达式列表
- 求值顺序
- 运算符优先级
- 简单语句
- 表达式语句
- 赋值语句
- assert 语句
- pass 语句
- del 语句
- return 语句
- yield 语句
- raise 语句
- break 语句
- continue 语句
- import 语句
- global 语句
- nonlocal 语句
- 复合语句
- if 语句
- while 语句
- for 语句
- try 语句
- with 语句
- 函数定义
- 类定义
- 协程
- 最高层级组件
- 完整的 Python 程序
- 文件输入
- 交互式输入
- 表达式输入
- 完整的语法规范
- Python 标准库
- 概述
- 可用性注释
- 内置函数
- 内置常量
- 由 site 模块添加的常量
- 内置类型
- 逻辑值检测
- 布尔运算 — and, or, not
- 比较
- 数字类型 — int, float, complex
- 迭代器类型
- 序列类型 — list, tuple, range
- 文本序列类型 — str
- 二进制序列类型 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview
- 集合类型 — set, frozenset
- 映射类型 — dict
- 上下文管理器类型
- 其他内置类型
- 特殊属性
- 内置异常
- 基类
- 具体异常
- 警告
- 异常层次结构
- 文本处理服务
- string — 常见的字符串操作
- re — 正则表达式操作
- 模块 difflib 是一个计算差异的助手
- textwrap — Text wrapping and filling
- unicodedata — Unicode 数据库
- stringprep — Internet String Preparation
- readline — GNU readline interface
- rlcompleter — GNU readline的完成函数
- 二进制数据服务
- struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data
- codecs — Codec registry and base classes
- 数据类型
- datetime — 基础日期/时间数据类型
- calendar — General calendar-related functions
- collections — 容器数据类型
- collections.abc — 容器的抽象基类
- heapq — 堆队列算法
- bisect — Array bisection algorithm
- array — Efficient arrays of numeric values
- weakref — 弱引用
- types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
- copy — 浅层 (shallow) 和深层 (deep) 复制操作
- pprint — 数据美化输出
- reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation
- enum — Support for enumerations
- 数字和数学模块
- numbers — 数字的抽象基类
- math — 数学函数
- cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
- decimal — 十进制定点和浮点运算
- fractions — 分数
- random — 生成伪随机数
- statistics — Mathematical statistics functions
- 函数式编程模块
- itertools — 为高效循环而创建迭代器的函数
- functools — 高阶函数和可调用对象上的操作
- operator — 标准运算符替代函数
- 文件和目录访问
- pathlib — 面向对象的文件系统路径
- os.path — 常见路径操作
- fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
- stat — Interpreting stat() results
- filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons
- tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories
- glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion
- fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching
- linecache — Random access to text lines
- shutil — High-level file operations
- macpath — Mac OS 9 路径操作函数
- 数据持久化
- pickle —— Python 对象序列化
- copyreg — Register pickle support functions
- shelve — Python object persistence
- marshal — Internal Python object serialization
- dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”
- sqlite3 — SQLite 数据库 DB-API 2.0 接口模块
- 数据压缩和存档
- zlib — 与 gzip 兼容的压缩
- gzip — 对 gzip 格式的支持
- bz2 — 对 bzip2 压缩算法的支持
- lzma — 用 LZMA 算法压缩
- zipfile — 在 ZIP 归档中工作
- tarfile — Read and write tar archive files
- 文件格式
- csv — CSV 文件读写
- configparser — Configuration file parser
- netrc — netrc file processing
- xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data
- plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files
- 加密服务
- hashlib — 安全哈希与消息摘要
- hmac — 基于密钥的消息验证
- secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
- 通用操作系统服务
- os — 操作系统接口模块
- io — 处理流的核心工具
- time — 时间的访问和转换
- argparse — 命令行选项、参数和子命令解析器
- getopt — C-style parser for command line options
- 模块 logging — Python 的日志记录工具
- logging.config — 日志记录配置
- logging.handlers — Logging handlers
- getpass — 便携式密码输入工具
- curses — 终端字符单元显示的处理
- curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs
- curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters
- curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses
- platform — Access to underlying platform's identifying data
- errno — Standard errno system symbols
- ctypes — Python 的外部函数库
- 并发执行
- threading — 基于线程的并行
- multiprocessing — 基于进程的并行
- concurrent 包
- concurrent.futures — 启动并行任务
- subprocess — 子进程管理
- sched — 事件调度器
- queue — 一个同步的队列类
- _thread — 底层多线程 API
- _dummy_thread — _thread 的替代模块
- dummy_threading — 可直接替代 threading 模块。
- contextvars — Context Variables
- Context Variables
- Manual Context Management
- asyncio support
- 网络和进程间通信
- asyncio — 异步 I/O
- socket — 底层网络接口
- ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
- select — Waiting for I/O completion
- selectors — 高级 I/O 复用库
- asyncore — 异步socket处理器
- asynchat — 异步 socket 指令/响应 处理器
- signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events
- mmap — Memory-mapped file support
- 互联网数据处理
- email — 电子邮件与 MIME 处理包
- json — JSON 编码和解码器
- mailcap — Mailcap file handling
- mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
- mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types
- base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 数据编码
- binhex — 对binhex4文件进行编码和解码
- binascii — 二进制和 ASCII 码互转
- quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
- uu — Encode and decode uuencode files
- 结构化标记处理工具
- html — 超文本标记语言支持
- html.parser — 简单的 HTML 和 XHTML 解析器
- html.entities — HTML 一般实体的定义
- XML处理模块
- xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API
- xml.dom — The Document Object Model API
- xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation
- xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees
- xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers
- xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers
- xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities
- xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers
- xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat
- 互联网协议和支持
- webbrowser — 方便的Web浏览器控制器
- cgi — Common Gateway Interface support
- cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts
- wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
- urllib — URL 处理模块
- urllib.request — 用于打开 URL 的可扩展库
- urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib
- urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components
- urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request
- urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt
- http — HTTP 模块
- http.client — HTTP协议客户端
- ftplib — FTP protocol client
- poplib — POP3 protocol client
- imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client
- nntplib — NNTP protocol client
- smtplib —SMTP协议客户端
- smtpd — SMTP Server
- telnetlib — Telnet client
- uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122
- socketserver — A framework for network servers
- http.server — HTTP 服务器
- http.cookies — HTTP state management
- http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients
- xmlrpc — XMLRPC 服务端与客户端模块
- xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access
- xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers
- ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
- 多媒体服务
- audioop — Manipulate raw audio data
- aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
- sunau — 读写 Sun AU 文件
- wave — 读写WAV格式文件
- chunk — Read IFF chunked data
- colorsys — Conversions between color systems
- imghdr — 推测图像类型
- sndhdr — 推测声音文件的类型
- ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
- 国际化
- gettext — 多语种国际化服务
- locale — 国际化服务
- 程序框架
- turtle — 海龟绘图
- cmd — 支持面向行的命令解释器
- shlex — Simple lexical analysis
- Tk图形用户界面(GUI)
- tkinter — Tcl/Tk的Python接口
- tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets
- tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk
- tkinter.scrolledtext — 滚动文字控件
- IDLE
- 其他图形用户界面（GUI）包
- 开发工具
- typing — 类型标注支持
- pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system
- doctest — Test interactive Python examples
- unittest — 单元测试框架
- unittest.mock — mock object library
- unittest.mock 上手指南
- 2to3 - 自动将 Python 2 代码转为 Python 3 代码
- test — Regression tests package for Python
- test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite
- test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests
- 调试和分析
- bdb — Debugger framework
- faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback
- pdb — The Python Debugger
- The Python Profilers
- timeit — 测量小代码片段的执行时间
- trace — Trace or track Python statement execution
- tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations
- 软件打包和分发
- distutils — 构建和安装 Python 模块
- ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer
- venv — 创建虚拟环境
- zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives
- Python运行时服务
- sys — 系统相关的参数和函数
- sysconfig — Provide access to Python's configuration information
- builtins — 内建对象
- main — 顶层脚本环境
- warnings — Warning control
- dataclasses — 数据类
- contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts
- abc — 抽象基类
- atexit — 退出处理器
- traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback
- future — Future 语句定义
- gc — 垃圾回收器接口
- inspect — 检查对象
- site — Site-specific configuration hook
- 自定义 Python 解释器
- code — Interpreter base classes
- codeop — Compile Python code
- 导入模块
- zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives
- pkgutil — Package extension utility
- modulefinder — 查找脚本使用的模块
- runpy — Locating and executing Python modules
- importlib — The implementation of import
- Python 语言服务
- parser — Access Python parse trees
- ast — 抽象语法树
- symtable — Access to the compiler's symbol tables
- symbol — 与 Python 解析树一起使用的常量
- token — 与Python解析树一起使用的常量
- keyword — 检验Python关键字
- tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source
- tabnanny — 模糊缩进检测
- pyclbr — Python class browser support
- py_compile — Compile Python source files
- compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries
- dis — Python 字节码反汇编器
- pickletools — Tools for pickle developers
- 杂项服务
- formatter — Generic output formatting
- Windows系统相关模块
- msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files
- msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
- winreg — Windows 注册表访问
- winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows
- Unix 专有服务
- posix — The most common POSIX system calls
- pwd — 用户密码数据库
- spwd — The shadow password database
- grp — The group database
- crypt — Function to check Unix passwords
- termios — POSIX style tty control
- tty — 终端控制功能
- pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities
- fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls
- pipes — Interface to shell pipelines
- resource — Resource usage information
- nis — Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages)
- Unix syslog 库例程
- 被取代的模块
- optparse — Parser for command line options
- imp — Access the import internals
- 未创建文档的模块
- 平台特定模块
- 扩展和嵌入 Python 解释器
- 推荐的第三方工具
- 不使用第三方工具创建扩展
- 使用 C 或 C++ 扩展 Python
- 自定义扩展类型：教程
- 定义扩展类型：已分类主题
- 构建C/C++扩展
- 在Windows平台编译C和C++扩展
- 在更大的应用程序中嵌入 CPython 运行时
- Embedding Python in Another Application
- Python/C API 参考手册
- 概述
- 代码标准
- 包含文件
- 有用的宏
- 对象、类型和引用计数
- 异常
- 嵌入Python
- 调试构建
- 稳定的应用程序二进制接口
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- 异常处理
- Printing and clearing
- 抛出异常
- Issuing warnings
- Querying the error indicator
- Signal Handling
- Exception Classes
- Exception Objects
- Unicode Exception Objects
- Recursion Control
- 标准异常
- 标准警告类别
- 工具
- 操作系统实用程序
- 系统功能
- 过程控制
- 导入模块
- Data marshalling support
- 语句解释及变量编译
- 字符串转换与格式化
- 反射
- 编解码器注册与支持功能
- 抽象对象层
- Object Protocol
- 数字协议
- Sequence Protocol
- Mapping Protocol
- 迭代器协议
- 缓冲协议
- Old Buffer Protocol
- 具体的对象层
- 基本对象
- 数值对象
- 序列对象
- 容器对象
- 函数对象
- 其他对象
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- 在Python初始化之前
- 全局配置变量
- Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
- Process-wide parameters
- Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
- Sub-interpreter support
- Asynchronous Notifications
- Profiling and Tracing
- Advanced Debugger Support
- Thread Local Storage Support
- 内存管理
- 概述
- 原始内存接口
- Memory Interface
- 对象分配器
- 默认内存分配器
- Customize Memory Allocators
- The pymalloc allocator
- tracemalloc C API
- 示例
- 对象实现支持
- 在堆中分配对象
- Common Object Structures
- Type 对象
- Number Object Structures
- Mapping Object Structures
- Sequence Object Structures
- Buffer Object Structures
- Async Object Structures
- 使对象类型支持循环垃圾回收
- API 和 ABI 版本管理
- 分发 Python 模块
- 关键术语
- 开源许可与协作
- 安装工具
- 阅读指南
- 我该如何...？
- ...为我的项目选择一个名字？
- ...创建和分发二进制扩展？
- 安装 Python 模块
- 关键术语
- 基本使用
- 我应如何 ...？
- ... 在 Python 3.4 之前的 Python 版本中安装 pip ？
- ... 只为当前用户安装软件包？
- ... 安装科学计算类 Python 软件包？
- ... 使用并行安装的多个 Python 版本？
- 常见的安装问题
- 在 Linux 的系统 Python 版本上安装
- 未安装 pip
- 安装二进制编译扩展
- Python 常用指引
- 将 Python 2 代码迁移到 Python 3
- 简要说明
- 详情
- 将扩展模块移植到 Python 3
- 条件编译
- 对象API的更改
- 模块初始化和状态
- CObject 替换为 Capsule
- 其他选项
- Curses Programming with Python
- What is curses?
- Starting and ending a curses application
- Windows and Pads
- Displaying Text
- User Input
- For More Information
- 实现描述器
- 摘要
- 定义和简介
- 描述器协议
- 发起调用描述符
- 描述符示例
- Properties
- 函数和方法
- Static Methods and Class Methods
- 函数式编程指引
- 概述
- 迭代器
- 生成器表达式和列表推导式
- 生成器
- 内置函数
- itertools 模块
- The functools module
- Small functions and the lambda expression
- Revision History and Acknowledgements
- 引用文献
- 日志 HOWTO
- 日志基础教程
- 进阶日志教程
- 日志级别
- 有用的处理程序
- 记录日志中引发的异常
- 使用任意对象作为消息
- 优化
- 日志操作手册
- 在多个模块中使用日志
- 在多线程中使用日志
- 使用多个日志处理器和多种格式化
- 在多个地方记录日志
- 日志服务器配置示例
- 处理日志处理器的阻塞
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- Use of alternative formatting styles
- Customizing LogRecord
- Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
- Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
- A more elaborate multiprocessing example
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Customizing handlers with dictConfig()
- Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
- Configuring filters with dictConfig()
- Customized exception formatting
- Speaking logging messages
- Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
- Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
- Using a context manager for selective logging
- 正则表达式HOWTO
- 概述
- 简单模式
- 使用正则表达式
- 更多模式能力
- 修改字符串
- 常见问题
- 反馈
- 套接字编程指南
- 套接字
- 创建套接字
- 使用一个套接字
- 断开连接
- 非阻塞的套接字
- 排序指南
- 基本排序
- 关键函数
- Operator 模块函数
- 升序和降序
- 排序稳定性和排序复杂度
- 使用装饰-排序-去装饰的旧方法
- 使用 cmp 参数的旧方法
- 其它
- Unicode 指南
- Unicode 概述
- Python's Unicode Support
- Reading and Writing Unicode Data
- Acknowledgements
- 如何使用urllib包获取网络资源
- 概述
- Fetching URLs
- 处理异常
- info and geturl
- Openers and Handlers
- Basic Authentication
- Proxies
- Sockets and Layers
- 脚注
- Argparse 教程
- 概念
- 基础
- 位置参数介绍
- Introducing Optional arguments
- Combining Positional and Optional arguments
- Getting a little more advanced
- Conclusion
- ipaddress模块介绍
- 创建 Address/Network/Interface 对象
- 审查 Address/Network/Interface 对象
- Network 作为 Address 列表
- 比较
- 将IP地址与其他模块一起使用
- 实例创建失败时获取更多详细信息
- Argument Clinic How-To
- The Goals Of Argument Clinic
- Basic Concepts And Usage
- Converting Your First Function
- Advanced Topics
- 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 检测CPython
- Enabling the static markers
- Static DTrace probes
- Static SystemTap markers
- Available static markers
- SystemTap Tapsets
- 示例
- Python 常见问题
- Python常见问题
- 一般信息
- 现实世界中的 Python
- 编程常见问题
- 一般问题
- 核心语言
- 数字和字符串
- 性能
- 序列（元组/列表）
- 对象
- 模块
- 设计和历史常见问题
- 为什么Python使用缩进来分组语句？
- 为什么简单的算术运算得到奇怪的结果？
- 为什么浮点计算不准确？
- 为什么Python字符串是不可变的？
- 为什么必须在方法定义和调用中显式使用“self”？
- 为什么不能在表达式中赋值？
- 为什么Python对某些功能（例如list.index()）使用方法来实现，而其他功能（例如len(List)）使用函数实现？
- 为什么 join()是一个字符串方法而不是列表或元组方法？
- 异常有多快？
- 为什么Python中没有switch或case语句？
- 难道不能在解释器中模拟线程，而非得依赖特定于操作系统的线程实现吗？
- 为什么lambda表达式不能包含语句？
- 可以将Python编译为机器代码，C或其他语言吗？
- Python如何管理内存？
- 为什么CPython不使用更传统的垃圾回收方案？
- CPython退出时为什么不释放所有内存？
- 为什么有单独的元组和列表数据类型？
- 列表是如何在CPython中实现的？
- 字典是如何在CPython中实现的？
- 为什么字典key必须是不可变的？
- 为什么 list.sort() 没有返回排序列表？
- 如何在Python中指定和实施接口规范？
- 为什么没有goto？
- 为什么原始字符串（r-strings）不能以反斜杠结尾？
- 为什么Python没有属性赋值的“with”语句？
- 为什么 if/while/def/class语句需要冒号？
- 为什么Python在列表和元组的末尾允许使用逗号？
- 代码库和插件 FAQ
- 通用的代码库问题
- 通用任务
- 线程相关
- 输入输出
- 网络 / Internet 编程
- 数据库
- 数学和数字
- 扩展/嵌入常见问题
- 可以使用C语言中创建自己的函数吗？
- 可以使用C++语言中创建自己的函数吗？
- C很难写，有没有其他选择？
- 如何从C执行任意Python语句？
- 如何从C中评估任意Python表达式？
- 如何从Python对象中提取C的值？
- 如何使用Py_BuildValue()创建任意长度的元组？
- 如何从C调用对象的方法？
- 如何捕获PyErr_Print()（或打印到stdout / stderr的任何内容）的输出？
- 如何从C访问用Python编写的模块？
- 如何从Python接口到C ++对象？
- 我使用Setup文件添加了一个模块，为什么make失败了？
- 如何调试扩展？
- 我想在Linux系统上编译一个Python模块，但是缺少一些文件。为什么?
- 如何区分“输入不完整”和“输入无效”？
- 如何找到未定义的g++符号__builtin_new或__pure_virtual？
- 能否创建一个对象类，其中部分方法在C中实现，而其他方法在Python中实现（例如通过继承）？
- Python在Windows上的常见问题
- 我怎样在Windows下运行一个Python程序？
- 我怎么让 Python 脚本可执行？
- 为什么有时候 Python 程序会启动缓慢？
- 我怎样使用Python脚本制作可执行文件？
- *.pyd 文件和DLL文件相同吗？
- 我怎样将Python嵌入一个Windows程序？
- 如何让编辑器不要在我的 Python 源代码中插入 tab ？
- 如何在不阻塞的情况下检查按键？
- 图形用户界面（GUI）常见问题
- 图形界面常见问题
- Python 是否有平台无关的图形界面工具包？
- 有哪些Python的GUI工具是某个平台专用的？
- 有关Tkinter的问题
- “为什么我的电脑上安装了 Python ？”
- 什么是Python？
- 为什么我的电脑上安装了 Python ？
- 我能删除 Python 吗？
- 术语对照表
- 文档说明
- Python 文档贡献者
- 解决 Bug
- 文档错误
- 使用 Python 的错误追踪系统
- 开始为 Python 贡献您的知识
- 版权
- 历史和许可证
- 软件历史
- 访问Python或以其他方式使用Python的条款和条件
- Python 3.7.3 的 PSF 许可协议
- Python 2.0 的 BeOpen.com 许可协议
- Python 1.6.1 的 CNRI 许可协议
- Python 0.9.0 至 1.2 的 CWI 许可协议
- 集成软件的许可和认可
- Mersenne Twister
- 套接字
- Asynchronous socket services
- Cookie management
- Execution tracing
- UUencode and UUdecode functions
- XML Remote Procedure Calls
- test_epoll
- Select kqueue
- SipHash24
- strtod and dtoa
- OpenSSL
- expat
- libffi
- zlib
- cfuhash
- libmpdec