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# [`dis`](#module-dis "dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode.") --- Python 字节码反汇编器
**Source code:** [Lib/dis.py](https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/dis.py) \[https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/dis.py\]
- - - - - -
The [`dis`](#module-dis "dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode.") module supports the analysis of CPython [bytecode](../glossary.xhtml#term-bytecode) by disassembling it. The CPython bytecode which this module takes as an input is defined in the file `Include/opcode.h` and used by the compiler and the interpreter.
**CPython implementation detail:** Bytecode is an implementation detail of the CPython interpreter. No guarantees are made that bytecode will not be added, removed, or changed between versions of Python. Use of this module should not be considered to work across Python VMs or Python releases.
在 3.6 版更改: Use 2 bytes for each instruction. Previously the number of bytes varied by instruction.
Example: Given the function `myfunc()`:
```
def myfunc(alist):
return len(alist)
```
the following command can be used to display the disassembly of `myfunc()`:
```
>>> dis.dis(myfunc)
2 0 LOAD_GLOBAL 0 (len)
2 LOAD_FAST 0 (alist)
4 CALL_FUNCTION 1
6 RETURN_VALUE
```
(The "2" is a line number).
## Bytecode analysis
3\.4 新版功能.
The bytecode analysis API allows pieces of Python code to be wrapped in a [`Bytecode`](#dis.Bytecode "dis.Bytecode") object that provides easy access to details of the compiled code.
*class* `dis.``Bytecode`(*x*, *\**, *first\_line=None*, *current\_offset=None*)Analyse the bytecode corresponding to a function, generator, asynchronous generator, coroutine, method, string of source code, or a code object (as returned by [`compile()`](functions.xhtml#compile "compile")).
This is a convenience wrapper around many of the functions listed below, most notably [`get_instructions()`](#dis.get_instructions "dis.get_instructions"), as iterating over a [`Bytecode`](#dis.Bytecode "dis.Bytecode")instance yields the bytecode operations as [`Instruction`](#dis.Instruction "dis.Instruction") instances.
If *first\_line* is not `None`, it indicates the line number that should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled code. Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code object.
If *current\_offset* is not `None`, it refers to an instruction offset in the disassembled code. Setting this means [`dis()`](#dis.Bytecode.dis "dis.Bytecode.dis") will display a "current instruction" marker against the specified opcode.
*classmethod* `from_traceback`(*tb*)Construct a [`Bytecode`](#dis.Bytecode "dis.Bytecode") instance from the given traceback, setting *current\_offset* to the instruction responsible for the exception.
`codeobj`The compiled code object.
`first_line`The first source line of the code object (if available)
`dis`()Return a formatted view of the bytecode operations (the same as printed by [`dis.dis()`](#dis.dis "dis.dis"), but returned as a multi-line string).
`info`()Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed information about the code object, like [`code_info()`](#dis.code_info "dis.code_info").
在 3.7 版更改: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.
示例:
```
>>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
>>> for instr in bytecode:
... print(instr.opname)
...
LOAD_GLOBAL
LOAD_FAST
CALL_FUNCTION
RETURN_VALUE
```
## Analysis functions
The [`dis`](#module-dis "dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode.") module also defines the following analysis functions that convert the input directly to the desired output. They can be useful if only a single operation is being performed, so the intermediate analysis object isn't useful:
`dis.``code_info`(*x*)Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed code object information for the supplied function, generator, asynchronous generator, coroutine, method, source code string or code object.
Note that the exact contents of code info strings are highly implementation dependent and they may change arbitrarily across Python VMs or Python releases.
3\.2 新版功能.
在 3.7 版更改: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.
`dis.``show_code`(*x*, *\**, *file=None*)Print detailed code object information for the supplied function, method, source code string or code object to *file* (or `sys.stdout` if *file*is not specified).
This is a convenient shorthand for `print(code_info(x), file=file)`, intended for interactive exploration at the interpreter prompt.
3\.2 新版功能.
在 3.4 版更改: Added *file* parameter.
`dis.``dis`(*x=None*, *\**, *file=None*, *depth=None*)Disassemble the *x* object. *x* can denote either a module, a class, a method, a function, a generator, an asynchronous generator, a coroutine, a code object, a string of source code or a byte sequence of raw bytecode. For a module, it disassembles all functions. For a class, it disassembles all methods (including class and static methods). For a code object or sequence of raw bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction. It also recursively disassembles nested code objects (the code of comprehensions, generator expressions and nested functions, and the code used for building nested classes). Strings are first compiled to code objects with the [`compile()`](functions.xhtml#compile "compile")built-in function before being disassembled. If no object is provided, this function disassembles the last traceback.
The disassembly is written as text to the supplied *file* argument if provided and to `sys.stdout` otherwise.
The maximal depth of recursion is limited by *depth* unless it is `None`. `depth=0` means no recursion.
在 3.4 版更改: Added *file* parameter.
在 3.7 版更改: Implemented recursive disassembling and added *depth* parameter.
在 3.7 版更改: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.
`dis.``distb`(*tb=None*, *\**, *file=None*)Disassemble the top-of-stack function of a traceback, using the last traceback if none was passed. The instruction causing the exception is indicated.
The disassembly is written as text to the supplied *file* argument if provided and to `sys.stdout` otherwise.
在 3.4 版更改: Added *file* parameter.
`dis.``disassemble`(*code*, *lasti=-1*, *\**, *file=None*)`dis.``disco`(*code*, *lasti=-1*, *\**, *file=None*)Disassemble a code object, indicating the last instruction if *lasti* was provided. The output is divided in the following columns:
1. the line number, for the first instruction of each line
2. the current instruction, indicated as `-->`,
3. a labelled instruction, indicated with `>>`,
4. the address of the instruction,
5. the operation code name,
6. operation parameters, and
7. interpretation of the parameters in parentheses.
The parameter interpretation recognizes local and global variable names, constant values, branch targets, and compare operators.
The disassembly is written as text to the supplied *file* argument if provided and to `sys.stdout` otherwise.
在 3.4 版更改: Added *file* parameter.
`dis.``get_instructions`(*x*, *\**, *first\_line=None*)Return an iterator over the instructions in the supplied function, method, source code string or code object.
The iterator generates a series of [`Instruction`](#dis.Instruction "dis.Instruction") named tuples giving the details of each operation in the supplied code.
If *first\_line* is not `None`, it indicates the line number that should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled code. Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code object.
3\.4 新版功能.
`dis.``findlinestarts`(*code*)This generator function uses the `co_firstlineno` and `co_lnotab`attributes of the code object *code* to find the offsets which are starts of lines in the source code. They are generated as `(offset, lineno)` pairs. See [Objects/lnotab\_notes.txt](https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Objects/lnotab_notes.txt) \[https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Objects/lnotab\_notes.txt\] for the `co_lnotab` format and how to decode it.
在 3.6 版更改: Line numbers can be decreasing. Before, they were always increasing.
`dis.``findlabels`(*code*)Detect all offsets in the code object *code* which are jump targets, and return a list of these offsets.
`dis.``stack_effect`(*opcode*\[, *oparg*\])Compute the stack effect of *opcode* with argument *oparg*.
3\.4 新版功能.
## Python Bytecode Instructions
The [`get_instructions()`](#dis.get_instructions "dis.get_instructions") function and [`Bytecode`](#dis.Bytecode "dis.Bytecode") class provide details of bytecode instructions as [`Instruction`](#dis.Instruction "dis.Instruction") instances:
*class* `dis.``Instruction`Details for a bytecode operation
`opcode`numeric code for operation, corresponding to the opcode values listed below and the bytecode values in the [Opcode collections](#opcode-collections).
`opname`human readable name for operation
`arg`numeric argument to operation (if any), otherwise `None`
`argval`resolved arg value (if known), otherwise same as arg
`argrepr`human readable description of operation argument
`offset`start index of operation within bytecode sequence
`starts_line`line started by this opcode (if any), otherwise `None`
`is_jump_target``True` if other code jumps to here, otherwise `False`
3\.4 新版功能.
The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode instructions.
**General instructions**
`NOP`Do nothing code. Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer.
`POP_TOP`Removes the top-of-stack (TOS) item.
`ROT_TWO`Swaps the two top-most stack items.
`ROT_THREE`Lifts second and third stack item one position up, moves top down to position three.
`DUP_TOP`Duplicates the reference on top of the stack.
3\.2 新版功能.
`DUP_TOP_TWO`Duplicates the two references on top of the stack, leaving them in the same order.
3\.2 新版功能.
**Unary operations**
Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and push the result back on the stack.
`UNARY_POSITIVE`Implements `TOS = +TOS`.
`UNARY_NEGATIVE`Implements `TOS = -TOS`.
`UNARY_NOT`Implements `TOS = not TOS`.
`UNARY_INVERT`Implements `TOS = ~TOS`.
`GET_ITER`Implements `TOS = iter(TOS)`.
`GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER`If `TOS` is a [generator iterator](../glossary.xhtml#term-generator-iterator) or [coroutine](../glossary.xhtml#term-coroutine) object it is left as is. Otherwise, implements `TOS = iter(TOS)`.
3\.5 新版功能.
**Binary operations**
Binary operations remove the top of the stack (TOS) and the second top-most stack item (TOS1) from the stack. They perform the operation, and put the result back on the stack.
`BINARY_POWER`Implements `TOS = TOS1 ** TOS`.
`BINARY_MULTIPLY`Implements `TOS = TOS1 * TOS`.
`BINARY_MATRIX_MULTIPLY`Implements `TOS = TOS1 @ TOS`.
3\.5 新版功能.
`BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE`Implements `TOS = TOS1 // TOS`.
`BINARY_TRUE_DIVIDE`Implements `TOS = TOS1 / TOS`.
`BINARY_MODULO`Implements `TOS = TOS1 % TOS`.
`BINARY_ADD`Implements `TOS = TOS1 + TOS`.
`BINARY_SUBTRACT`Implements `TOS = TOS1 - TOS`.
`BINARY_SUBSCR`Implements `TOS = TOS1[TOS]`.
`BINARY_LSHIFT`Implements `TOS = TOS1 << TOS`.
`BINARY_RSHIFT`Implements `TOS = TOS1 >> TOS`.
`BINARY_AND`Implements `TOS = TOS1 & TOS`.
`BINARY_XOR`Implements `TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS`.
`BINARY_OR`Implements `TOS = TOS1 | TOS`.
**In-place operations**
In-place operations are like binary operations, in that they remove TOS and TOS1, and push the result back on the stack, but the operation is done in-place when TOS1 supports it, and the resulting TOS may be (but does not have to be) the original TOS1.
`INPLACE_POWER`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 ** TOS`.
`INPLACE_MULTIPLY`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 * TOS`.
`INPLACE_MATRIX_MULTIPLY`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 @ TOS`.
3\.5 新版功能.
`INPLACE_FLOOR_DIVIDE`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 // TOS`.
`INPLACE_TRUE_DIVIDE`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 / TOS`.
`INPLACE_MODULO`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 % TOS`.
`INPLACE_ADD`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 + TOS`.
`INPLACE_SUBTRACT`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 - TOS`.
`INPLACE_LSHIFT`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 << TOS`.
`INPLACE_RSHIFT`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 >> TOS`.
`INPLACE_AND`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 & TOS`.
`INPLACE_XOR`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 ^ TOS`.
`INPLACE_OR`Implements in-place `TOS = TOS1 | TOS`.
`STORE_SUBSCR`Implements `TOS1[TOS] = TOS2`.
`DELETE_SUBSCR`Implements `del TOS1[TOS]`.
**Coroutine opcodes**
`GET_AWAITABLE`Implements `TOS = get_awaitable(TOS)`, where `get_awaitable(o)`returns `o` if `o` is a coroutine object or a generator object with the CO\_ITERABLE\_COROUTINE flag, or resolves `o.__await__`.
3\.5 新版功能.
`GET_AITER`Implements `TOS = TOS.__aiter__()`.
3\.5 新版功能.
在 3.7 版更改: Returning awaitable objects from `__aiter__` is no longer supported.
`GET_ANEXT`Implements `PUSH(get_awaitable(TOS.__anext__()))`. See `GET_AWAITABLE`for details about `get_awaitable`
3\.5 新版功能.
`BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH`Resolves `__aenter__` and `__aexit__` from the object on top of the stack. Pushes `__aexit__` and result of `__aenter__()` to the stack.
3\.5 新版功能.
`SETUP_ASYNC_WITH`Creates a new frame object.
3\.5 新版功能.
**Miscellaneous opcodes**
`PRINT_EXPR`Implements the expression statement for the interactive mode. TOS is removed from the stack and printed. In non-interactive mode, an expression statement is terminated with [`POP_TOP`](#opcode-POP_TOP).
`BREAK_LOOP`Terminates a loop due to a [`break`](../reference/simple_stmts.xhtml#break) statement.
`CONTINUE_LOOP`(*target*)Continues a loop due to a [`continue`](../reference/simple_stmts.xhtml#continue) statement. *target* is the address to jump to (which should be a [`FOR_ITER`](#opcode-FOR_ITER) instruction).
`SET_ADD`(*i*)Calls `set.add(TOS1[-i], TOS)`. Used to implement set comprehensions.
`LIST_APPEND`(*i*)Calls `list.append(TOS[-i], TOS)`. Used to implement list comprehensions.
`MAP_ADD`(*i*)Calls `dict.setitem(TOS1[-i], TOS, TOS1)`. Used to implement dict comprehensions.
3\.1 新版功能.
For all of the [`SET_ADD`](#opcode-SET_ADD), [`LIST_APPEND`](#opcode-LIST_APPEND) and [`MAP_ADD`](#opcode-MAP_ADD)instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is popped off, the container object remains on the stack so that it is available for further iterations of the loop.
`RETURN_VALUE`Returns with TOS to the caller of the function.
`YIELD_VALUE`Pops TOS and yields it from a [generator](../glossary.xhtml#term-generator).
`YIELD_FROM`Pops TOS and delegates to it as a subiterator from a [generator](../glossary.xhtml#term-generator).
3\.3 新版功能.
`SETUP_ANNOTATIONS`Checks whether `__annotations__` is defined in `locals()`, if not it is set up to an empty `dict`. This opcode is only emitted if a class or module body contains [variable annotations](../glossary.xhtml#term-variable-annotation)statically.
3\.6 新版功能.
`IMPORT_STAR`Loads all symbols not starting with `'_'` directly from the module TOS to the local namespace. The module is popped after loading all names. This opcode implements `from module import *`.
`POP_BLOCK`Removes one block from the block stack. Per frame, there is a stack of blocks, denoting nested loops, try statements, and such.
`POP_EXCEPT`Removes one block from the block stack. The popped block must be an exception handler block, as implicitly created when entering an except handler. In addition to popping extraneous values from the frame stack, the last three popped values are used to restore the exception state.
`END_FINALLY`Terminates a [`finally`](../reference/compound_stmts.xhtml#finally) clause. The interpreter recalls whether the exception has to be re-raised, or whether the function returns, and continues with the outer-next block.
`LOAD_BUILD_CLASS`Pushes `builtins.__build_class__()` onto the stack. It is later called by [`CALL_FUNCTION`](#opcode-CALL_FUNCTION) to construct a class.
`SETUP_WITH`(*delta*)This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts. First, it loads [`__exit__()`](../reference/datamodel.xhtml#object.__exit__ "object.__exit__") from the context manager and pushes it onto the stack for later use by `WITH_CLEANUP`. Then, [`__enter__()`](../reference/datamodel.xhtml#object.__enter__ "object.__enter__") is called, and a finally block pointing to *delta*is pushed. Finally, the result of calling the enter method is pushed onto the stack. The next opcode will either ignore it ([`POP_TOP`](#opcode-POP_TOP)), or store it in (a) variable(s) ([`STORE_FAST`](#opcode-STORE_FAST), [`STORE_NAME`](#opcode-STORE_NAME), or [`UNPACK_SEQUENCE`](#opcode-UNPACK_SEQUENCE)).
3\.2 新版功能.
`WITH_CLEANUP_START`Cleans up the stack when a [`with`](../reference/compound_stmts.xhtml#with) statement block exits. TOS is the context manager's [`__exit__()`](../reference/datamodel.xhtml#object.__exit__ "object.__exit__") bound method. Below TOS are 1--3 values indicating how/why the finally clause was entered:
- SECOND = `None`
- (SECOND, THIRD) = (`WHY_{RETURN,CONTINUE}`), retval
- SECOND = `WHY_*`; no retval below it
- (SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH) = exc\_info()
In the last case, `TOS(SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH)` is called, otherwise `TOS(None, None, None)`. Pushes SECOND and result of the call to the stack.
`WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH`Pops exception type and result of 'exit' function call from the stack.
If the stack represents an exception, *and* the function call returns a 'true' value, this information is "zapped" and replaced with a single `WHY_SILENCED` to prevent [`END_FINALLY`](#opcode-END_FINALLY) from re-raising the exception. (But non-local gotos will still be resumed.)
All of the following opcodes use their arguments.
`STORE_NAME`(*namei*)Implements `name = TOS`. *namei* is the index of *name* in the attribute `co_names` of the code object. The compiler tries to use [`STORE_FAST`](#opcode-STORE_FAST) or [`STORE_GLOBAL`](#opcode-STORE_GLOBAL) if possible.
`DELETE_NAME`(*namei*)Implements `del name`, where *namei* is the index into `co_names`attribute of the code object.
`UNPACK_SEQUENCE`(*count*)Unpacks TOS into *count* individual values, which are put onto the stack right-to-left.
`UNPACK_EX`(*counts*)Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in TOS into individual values, where the total number of values can be smaller than the number of items in the iterable: one of the new values will be a list of all leftover items.
The low byte of *counts* is the number of values before the list value, the high byte of *counts* the number of values after it. The resulting values are put onto the stack right-to-left.
`STORE_ATTR`(*namei*)Implements `TOS.name = TOS1`, where *namei* is the index of name in `co_names`.
`DELETE_ATTR`(*namei*)Implements `del TOS.name`, using *namei* as index into `co_names`.
`STORE_GLOBAL`(*namei*)Works as [`STORE_NAME`](#opcode-STORE_NAME), but stores the name as a global.
`DELETE_GLOBAL`(*namei*)Works as [`DELETE_NAME`](#opcode-DELETE_NAME), but deletes a global name.
`LOAD_CONST`(*consti*)Pushes `co_consts[consti]` onto the stack.
`LOAD_NAME`(*namei*)Pushes the value associated with `co_names[namei]` onto the stack.
`BUILD_TUPLE`(*count*)Creates a tuple consuming *count* items from the stack, and pushes the resulting tuple onto the stack.
`BUILD_LIST`(*count*)Works as [`BUILD_TUPLE`](#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE), but creates a list.
`BUILD_SET`(*count*)Works as [`BUILD_TUPLE`](#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE), but creates a set.
`BUILD_MAP`(*count*)Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack. Pops `2 * count` items so that the dictionary holds *count* entries: `{..., TOS3: TOS2, TOS1: TOS}`.
在 3.5 版更改: The dictionary is created from stack items instead of creating an empty dictionary pre-sized to hold *count* items.
`BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP`(*count*)The version of [`BUILD_MAP`](#opcode-BUILD_MAP) specialized for constant keys. *count*values are consumed from the stack. The top element on the stack contains a tuple of keys.
3\.6 新版功能.
`BUILD_STRING`(*count*)Concatenates *count* strings from the stack and pushes the resulting string onto the stack.
3\.6 新版功能.
`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`(*count*)Pops *count* iterables from the stack, joins them in a single tuple, and pushes the result. Implements iterable unpacking in tuple displays `(*x, *y, *z)`.
3\.5 新版功能.
`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL`(*count*)This is similar to [`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`](#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK), but is used for `f(*x, *y, *z)` call syntax. The stack item at position `count + 1` should be the corresponding callable `f`.
3\.6 新版功能.
`BUILD_LIST_UNPACK`(*count*)This is similar to [`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`](#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK), but pushes a list instead of tuple. Implements iterable unpacking in list displays `[*x, *y, *z]`.
3\.5 新版功能.
`BUILD_SET_UNPACK`(*count*)This is similar to [`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK`](#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK), but pushes a set instead of tuple. Implements iterable unpacking in set displays `{*x, *y, *z}`.
3\.5 新版功能.
`BUILD_MAP_UNPACK`(*count*)Pops *count* mappings from the stack, merges them into a single dictionary, and pushes the result. Implements dictionary unpacking in dictionary displays `{**x, **y, **z}`.
3\.5 新版功能.
`BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL`(*count*)This is similar to [`BUILD_MAP_UNPACK`](#opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK), but is used for `f(**x, **y, **z)` call syntax. The stack item at position `count + 2` should be the corresponding callable `f`.
3\.5 新版功能.
在 3.6 版更改: The position of the callable is determined by adding 2 to the opcode argument instead of encoding it in the second byte of the argument.
`LOAD_ATTR`(*namei*)Replaces TOS with `getattr(TOS, co_names[namei])`.
`COMPARE_OP`(*opname*)Performs a Boolean operation. The operation name can be found in `cmp_op[opname]`.
`IMPORT_NAME`(*namei*)Imports the module `co_names[namei]`. TOS and TOS1 are popped and provide the *fromlist* and *level* arguments of [`__import__()`](functions.xhtml#__import__ "__import__"). The module object is pushed onto the stack. The current namespace is not affected: for a proper import statement, a subsequent [`STORE_FAST`](#opcode-STORE_FAST) instruction modifies the namespace.
`IMPORT_FROM`(*namei*)Loads the attribute `co_names[namei]` from the module found in TOS. The resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be subsequently stored by a [`STORE_FAST`](#opcode-STORE_FAST) instruction.
`JUMP_FORWARD`(*delta*)Increments bytecode counter by *delta*.
`POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE`(*target*)If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to *target*. TOS is popped.
3\.1 新版功能.
`POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE`(*target*)If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to *target*. TOS is popped.
3\.1 新版功能.
`JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP`(*target*)If TOS is true, sets the bytecode counter to *target* and leaves TOS on the stack. Otherwise (TOS is false), TOS is popped.
3\.1 新版功能.
`JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP`(*target*)If TOS is false, sets the bytecode counter to *target* and leaves TOS on the stack. Otherwise (TOS is true), TOS is popped.
3\.1 新版功能.
`JUMP_ABSOLUTE`(*target*)Set bytecode counter to *target*.
`FOR_ITER`(*delta*)TOS is an [iterator](../glossary.xhtml#term-iterator). Call its [`__next__()`](stdtypes.xhtml#iterator.__next__ "iterator.__next__") method. If this yields a new value, push it on the stack (leaving the iterator below it). If the iterator indicates it is exhausted TOS is popped, and the byte code counter is incremented by *delta*.
`LOAD_GLOBAL`(*namei*)Loads the global named `co_names[namei]` onto the stack.
`SETUP_LOOP`(*delta*)Pushes a block for a loop onto the block stack. The block spans from the current instruction with a size of *delta* bytes.
`SETUP_EXCEPT`(*delta*)Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. *delta*points to the first except block.
`SETUP_FINALLY`(*delta*)Pushes a try block from a try-except clause onto the block stack. *delta*points to the finally block.
`LOAD_FAST`(*var\_num*)Pushes a reference to the local `co_varnames[var_num]` onto the stack.
`STORE_FAST`(*var\_num*)Stores TOS into the local `co_varnames[var_num]`.
`DELETE_FAST`(*var\_num*)Deletes local `co_varnames[var_num]`.
`LOAD_CLOSURE`(*i*)Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable storage. The name of the variable is `co_cellvars[i]` if *i* is less than the length of *co\_cellvars*. Otherwise it is
```
co_freevars[i -
len(co_cellvars)]
```
.
`LOAD_DEREF`(*i*)Loads the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable storage. Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.
`LOAD_CLASSDEREF`(*i*)Much like [`LOAD_DEREF`](#opcode-LOAD_DEREF) but first checks the locals dictionary before consulting the cell. This is used for loading free variables in class bodies.
3\.4 新版功能.
`STORE_DEREF`(*i*)Stores TOS into the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable storage.
`DELETE_DEREF`(*i*)Empties the cell contained in slot *i* of the cell and free variable storage. Used by the [`del`](../reference/simple_stmts.xhtml#del) statement.
3\.2 新版功能.
`RAISE_VARARGS`(*argc*)Raises an exception. *argc* indicates the number of arguments to the raise statement, ranging from 0 to 3. The handler will find the traceback as TOS2, the parameter as TOS1, and the exception as TOS.
`CALL_FUNCTION`(*argc*)Calls a callable object with positional arguments. *argc* indicates the number of positional arguments. The top of the stack contains positional arguments, with the right-most argument on top. Below the arguments is a callable object to call. `CALL_FUNCTION` pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.
在 3.6 版更改: This opcode is used only for calls with positional arguments.
`CALL_FUNCTION_KW`(*argc*)Calls a callable object with positional (if any) and keyword arguments. *argc* indicates the total number of positional and keyword arguments. The top element on the stack contains a tuple of keyword argument names. Below that are keyword arguments in the order corresponding to the tuple. Below that are positional arguments, with the right-most parameter on top. Below the arguments is a callable object to call. `CALL_FUNCTION_KW` pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.
在 3.6 版更改: Keyword arguments are packed in a tuple instead of a dictionary, *argc* indicates the total number of arguments.
`CALL_FUNCTION_EX`(*flags*)Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword arguments. If the lowest bit of *flags* is set, the top of the stack contains a mapping object containing additional keyword arguments. Below that is an iterable object containing positional arguments and a callable object to call. [`BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL`](#opcode-BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL) and [`BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL`](#opcode-BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL) can be used for merging multiple mapping objects and iterables containing arguments. Before the callable is called, the mapping object and iterable object are each "unpacked" and their contents passed in as keyword and positional arguments respectively. `CALL_FUNCTION_EX` pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.
3\.6 新版功能.
`LOAD_METHOD`(*namei*)Loads a method named `co_names[namei]` from TOS object. TOS is popped and method and TOS are pushed when interpreter can call unbound method directly. TOS will be used as the first argument (`self`) by [`CALL_METHOD`](#opcode-CALL_METHOD). Otherwise, `NULL` and method is pushed (method is bound method or something else).
3\.7 新版功能.
`CALL_METHOD`(*argc*)Calls a method. *argc* is number of positional arguments. Keyword arguments are not supported. This opcode is designed to be used with [`LOAD_METHOD`](#opcode-LOAD_METHOD). Positional arguments are on top of the stack. Below them, two items described in [`LOAD_METHOD`](#opcode-LOAD_METHOD) on the stack. All of them are popped and return value is pushed.
3\.7 新版功能.
`MAKE_FUNCTION`(*argc*)Pushes a new function object on the stack. From bottom to top, the consumed stack must consist of values if the argument carries a specified flag value
- `0x01` a tuple of default values for positional-only and positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order
- `0x02` a dictionary of keyword-only parameters' default values
- `0x04` an annotation dictionary
- `0x08` a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a closure
- the code associated with the function (at TOS1)
- the [qualified name](../glossary.xhtml#term-qualified-name) of the function (at TOS)
`BUILD_SLICE`(*argc*)Pushes a slice object on the stack. *argc* must be 2 or 3. If it is 2, `slice(TOS1, TOS)` is pushed; if it is 3, `slice(TOS2, TOS1, TOS)` is pushed. See the [`slice()`](functions.xhtml#slice "slice") built-in function for more information.
`EXTENDED_ARG`(*ext*)Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the default two bytes. *ext* holds two additional bytes which, taken together with the subsequent opcode's argument, comprise a four-byte argument, *ext* being the two most-significant bytes.
`FORMAT_VALUE`(*flags*)Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings). Pops an optional *fmt\_spec* from the stack, then a required *value*. *flags* is interpreted as follows:
- `(flags & 0x03) == 0x00`: *value* is formatted as-is.
- `(flags & 0x03) == 0x01`: call [`str()`](stdtypes.xhtml#str "str") on *value* before formatting it.
- `(flags & 0x03) == 0x02`: call [`repr()`](functions.xhtml#repr "repr") on *value* before formatting it.
- `(flags & 0x03) == 0x03`: call [`ascii()`](functions.xhtml#ascii "ascii") on *value* before formatting it.
- `(flags & 0x04) == 0x04`: pop *fmt\_spec* from the stack and use it, else use an empty *fmt\_spec*.
Formatting is performed using `PyObject_Format()`. The result is pushed on the stack.
3\.6 新版功能.
`HAVE_ARGUMENT`This is not really an opcode. It identifies the dividing line between opcodes which don't use their argument and those that do (`< HAVE_ARGUMENT` and `>= HAVE_ARGUMENT`, respectively).
在 3.6 版更改: Now every instruction has an argument, but opcodes `< HAVE_ARGUMENT`ignore it. Before, only opcodes `>= HAVE_ARGUMENT` had an argument.
## Opcode collections
These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode instructions:
`dis.``opname`Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.
`dis.``opmap`Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.
`dis.``cmp_op`Sequence of all compare operation names.
`dis.``hasconst`Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant.
`dis.``hasfree`Sequence of bytecodes that access a free variable (note that 'free' in this context refers to names in the current scope that are referenced by inner scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced from this scope. It does *not* include references to global or builtin scopes).
`dis.``hasname`Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.
`dis.``hasjrel`Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.
`dis.``hasjabs`Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.
`dis.``haslocal`Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.
`dis.``hascompare`Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.
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- Python文档内容
- Python 有什么新变化？
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- PEP 405: Virtual Environments
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- PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
- PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
- PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
- PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
- PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
- PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
- PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
- PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
- PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
- PEP 362: Function Signature Object
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- Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
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- PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module
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- The Future for Python 2.x
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- PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
- PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
- PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
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- Python 2.6 有什么新变化
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- PEP 343: The 'with' statement
- PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
- PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory
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- PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
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- PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
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- PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
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- PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
- PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
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- PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
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- PEP 343: The 'with' statement
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- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 289: Generator Expressions
- PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
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- PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
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- PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
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- PEP 255: Simple Generators
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- PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
- PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
- PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
- PEP 279: enumerate()
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- PEP 285: A Boolean Type
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- New Development Process
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- 二进制序列类型 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview
- 集合类型 — set, frozenset
- 映射类型 — dict
- 上下文管理器类型
- 其他内置类型
- 特殊属性
- 内置异常
- 基类
- 具体异常
- 警告
- 异常层次结构
- 文本处理服务
- string — 常见的字符串操作
- re — 正则表达式操作
- 模块 difflib 是一个计算差异的助手
- textwrap — Text wrapping and filling
- unicodedata — Unicode 数据库
- stringprep — Internet String Preparation
- readline — GNU readline interface
- rlcompleter — GNU readline的完成函数
- 二进制数据服务
- struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data
- codecs — Codec registry and base classes
- 数据类型
- datetime — 基础日期/时间数据类型
- calendar — General calendar-related functions
- collections — 容器数据类型
- collections.abc — 容器的抽象基类
- heapq — 堆队列算法
- bisect — Array bisection algorithm
- array — Efficient arrays of numeric values
- weakref — 弱引用
- types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
- copy — 浅层 (shallow) 和深层 (deep) 复制操作
- pprint — 数据美化输出
- reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation
- enum — Support for enumerations
- 数字和数学模块
- numbers — 数字的抽象基类
- math — 数学函数
- cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
- decimal — 十进制定点和浮点运算
- fractions — 分数
- random — 生成伪随机数
- statistics — Mathematical statistics functions
- 函数式编程模块
- itertools — 为高效循环而创建迭代器的函数
- functools — 高阶函数和可调用对象上的操作
- operator — 标准运算符替代函数
- 文件和目录访问
- pathlib — 面向对象的文件系统路径
- os.path — 常见路径操作
- fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
- stat — Interpreting stat() results
- filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons
- tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories
- glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion
- fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching
- linecache — Random access to text lines
- shutil — High-level file operations
- macpath — Mac OS 9 路径操作函数
- 数据持久化
- pickle —— Python 对象序列化
- copyreg — Register pickle support functions
- shelve — Python object persistence
- marshal — Internal Python object serialization
- dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”
- sqlite3 — SQLite 数据库 DB-API 2.0 接口模块
- 数据压缩和存档
- zlib — 与 gzip 兼容的压缩
- gzip — 对 gzip 格式的支持
- bz2 — 对 bzip2 压缩算法的支持
- lzma — 用 LZMA 算法压缩
- zipfile — 在 ZIP 归档中工作
- tarfile — Read and write tar archive files
- 文件格式
- csv — CSV 文件读写
- configparser — Configuration file parser
- netrc — netrc file processing
- xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data
- plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files
- 加密服务
- hashlib — 安全哈希与消息摘要
- hmac — 基于密钥的消息验证
- secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
- 通用操作系统服务
- os — 操作系统接口模块
- io — 处理流的核心工具
- time — 时间的访问和转换
- argparse — 命令行选项、参数和子命令解析器
- getopt — C-style parser for command line options
- 模块 logging — Python 的日志记录工具
- logging.config — 日志记录配置
- logging.handlers — Logging handlers
- getpass — 便携式密码输入工具
- curses — 终端字符单元显示的处理
- curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs
- curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters
- curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses
- platform — Access to underlying platform's identifying data
- errno — Standard errno system symbols
- ctypes — Python 的外部函数库
- 并发执行
- threading — 基于线程的并行
- multiprocessing — 基于进程的并行
- concurrent 包
- concurrent.futures — 启动并行任务
- subprocess — 子进程管理
- sched — 事件调度器
- queue — 一个同步的队列类
- _thread — 底层多线程 API
- _dummy_thread — _thread 的替代模块
- dummy_threading — 可直接替代 threading 模块。
- contextvars — Context Variables
- Context Variables
- Manual Context Management
- asyncio support
- 网络和进程间通信
- asyncio — 异步 I/O
- socket — 底层网络接口
- ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
- select — Waiting for I/O completion
- selectors — 高级 I/O 复用库
- asyncore — 异步socket处理器
- asynchat — 异步 socket 指令/响应 处理器
- signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events
- mmap — Memory-mapped file support
- 互联网数据处理
- email — 电子邮件与 MIME 处理包
- json — JSON 编码和解码器
- mailcap — Mailcap file handling
- mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
- mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types
- base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 数据编码
- binhex — 对binhex4文件进行编码和解码
- binascii — 二进制和 ASCII 码互转
- quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
- uu — Encode and decode uuencode files
- 结构化标记处理工具
- html — 超文本标记语言支持
- html.parser — 简单的 HTML 和 XHTML 解析器
- html.entities — HTML 一般实体的定义
- XML处理模块
- xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API
- xml.dom — The Document Object Model API
- xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation
- xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees
- xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers
- xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers
- xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities
- xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers
- xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat
- 互联网协议和支持
- webbrowser — 方便的Web浏览器控制器
- cgi — Common Gateway Interface support
- cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts
- wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
- urllib — URL 处理模块
- urllib.request — 用于打开 URL 的可扩展库
- urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib
- urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components
- urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request
- urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt
- http — HTTP 模块
- http.client — HTTP协议客户端
- ftplib — FTP protocol client
- poplib — POP3 protocol client
- imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client
- nntplib — NNTP protocol client
- smtplib —SMTP协议客户端
- smtpd — SMTP Server
- telnetlib — Telnet client
- uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122
- socketserver — A framework for network servers
- http.server — HTTP 服务器
- http.cookies — HTTP state management
- http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients
- xmlrpc — XMLRPC 服务端与客户端模块
- xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access
- xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers
- ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
- 多媒体服务
- audioop — Manipulate raw audio data
- aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
- sunau — 读写 Sun AU 文件
- wave — 读写WAV格式文件
- chunk — Read IFF chunked data
- colorsys — Conversions between color systems
- imghdr — 推测图像类型
- sndhdr — 推测声音文件的类型
- ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
- 国际化
- gettext — 多语种国际化服务
- locale — 国际化服务
- 程序框架
- turtle — 海龟绘图
- cmd — 支持面向行的命令解释器
- shlex — Simple lexical analysis
- Tk图形用户界面(GUI)
- tkinter — Tcl/Tk的Python接口
- tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets
- tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk
- tkinter.scrolledtext — 滚动文字控件
- IDLE
- 其他图形用户界面（GUI）包
- 开发工具
- typing — 类型标注支持
- pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system
- doctest — Test interactive Python examples
- unittest — 单元测试框架
- unittest.mock — mock object library
- unittest.mock 上手指南
- 2to3 - 自动将 Python 2 代码转为 Python 3 代码
- test — Regression tests package for Python
- test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite
- test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests
- 调试和分析
- bdb — Debugger framework
- faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback
- pdb — The Python Debugger
- The Python Profilers
- timeit — 测量小代码片段的执行时间
- trace — Trace or track Python statement execution
- tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations
- 软件打包和分发
- distutils — 构建和安装 Python 模块
- ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer
- venv — 创建虚拟环境
- zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives
- Python运行时服务
- sys — 系统相关的参数和函数
- sysconfig — Provide access to Python's configuration information
- builtins — 内建对象
- main — 顶层脚本环境
- warnings — Warning control
- dataclasses — 数据类
- contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts
- abc — 抽象基类
- atexit — 退出处理器
- traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback
- future — Future 语句定义
- gc — 垃圾回收器接口
- inspect — 检查对象
- site — Site-specific configuration hook
- 自定义 Python 解释器
- code — Interpreter base classes
- codeop — Compile Python code
- 导入模块
- zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives
- pkgutil — Package extension utility
- modulefinder — 查找脚本使用的模块
- runpy — Locating and executing Python modules
- importlib — The implementation of import
- Python 语言服务
- parser — Access Python parse trees
- ast — 抽象语法树
- symtable — Access to the compiler's symbol tables
- symbol — 与 Python 解析树一起使用的常量
- token — 与Python解析树一起使用的常量
- keyword — 检验Python关键字
- tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source
- tabnanny — 模糊缩进检测
- pyclbr — Python class browser support
- py_compile — Compile Python source files
- compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries
- dis — Python 字节码反汇编器
- pickletools — Tools for pickle developers
- 杂项服务
- formatter — Generic output formatting
- Windows系统相关模块
- msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files
- msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
- winreg — Windows 注册表访问
- winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows
- Unix 专有服务
- posix — The most common POSIX system calls
- pwd — 用户密码数据库
- spwd — The shadow password database
- grp — The group database
- crypt — Function to check Unix passwords
- termios — POSIX style tty control
- tty — 终端控制功能
- pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities
- fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls
- pipes — Interface to shell pipelines
- resource — Resource usage information
- nis — Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages)
- Unix syslog 库例程
- 被取代的模块
- optparse — Parser for command line options
- imp — Access the import internals
- 未创建文档的模块
- 平台特定模块
- 扩展和嵌入 Python 解释器
- 推荐的第三方工具
- 不使用第三方工具创建扩展
- 使用 C 或 C++ 扩展 Python
- 自定义扩展类型：教程
- 定义扩展类型：已分类主题
- 构建C/C++扩展
- 在Windows平台编译C和C++扩展
- 在更大的应用程序中嵌入 CPython 运行时
- Embedding Python in Another Application
- Python/C API 参考手册
- 概述
- 代码标准
- 包含文件
- 有用的宏
- 对象、类型和引用计数
- 异常
- 嵌入Python
- 调试构建
- 稳定的应用程序二进制接口
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- 异常处理
- Printing and clearing
- 抛出异常
- Issuing warnings
- Querying the error indicator
- Signal Handling
- Exception Classes
- Exception Objects
- Unicode Exception Objects
- Recursion Control
- 标准异常
- 标准警告类别
- 工具
- 操作系统实用程序
- 系统功能
- 过程控制
- 导入模块
- Data marshalling support
- 语句解释及变量编译
- 字符串转换与格式化
- 反射
- 编解码器注册与支持功能
- 抽象对象层
- Object Protocol
- 数字协议
- Sequence Protocol
- Mapping Protocol
- 迭代器协议
- 缓冲协议
- Old Buffer Protocol
- 具体的对象层
- 基本对象
- 数值对象
- 序列对象
- 容器对象
- 函数对象
- 其他对象
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- 在Python初始化之前
- 全局配置变量
- Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
- Process-wide parameters
- Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
- Sub-interpreter support
- Asynchronous Notifications
- Profiling and Tracing
- Advanced Debugger Support
- Thread Local Storage Support
- 内存管理
- 概述
- 原始内存接口
- Memory Interface
- 对象分配器
- 默认内存分配器
- Customize Memory Allocators
- The pymalloc allocator
- tracemalloc C API
- 示例
- 对象实现支持
- 在堆中分配对象
- Common Object Structures
- Type 对象
- Number Object Structures
- Mapping Object Structures
- Sequence Object Structures
- Buffer Object Structures
- Async Object Structures
- 使对象类型支持循环垃圾回收
- API 和 ABI 版本管理
- 分发 Python 模块
- 关键术语
- 开源许可与协作
- 安装工具
- 阅读指南
- 我该如何...？
- ...为我的项目选择一个名字？
- ...创建和分发二进制扩展？
- 安装 Python 模块
- 关键术语
- 基本使用
- 我应如何 ...？
- ... 在 Python 3.4 之前的 Python 版本中安装 pip ？
- ... 只为当前用户安装软件包？
- ... 安装科学计算类 Python 软件包？
- ... 使用并行安装的多个 Python 版本？
- 常见的安装问题
- 在 Linux 的系统 Python 版本上安装
- 未安装 pip
- 安装二进制编译扩展
- Python 常用指引
- 将 Python 2 代码迁移到 Python 3
- 简要说明
- 详情
- 将扩展模块移植到 Python 3
- 条件编译
- 对象API的更改
- 模块初始化和状态
- CObject 替换为 Capsule
- 其他选项
- Curses Programming with Python
- What is curses?
- Starting and ending a curses application
- Windows and Pads
- Displaying Text
- User Input
- For More Information
- 实现描述器
- 摘要
- 定义和简介
- 描述器协议
- 发起调用描述符
- 描述符示例
- Properties
- 函数和方法
- Static Methods and Class Methods
- 函数式编程指引
- 概述
- 迭代器
- 生成器表达式和列表推导式
- 生成器
- 内置函数
- itertools 模块
- The functools module
- Small functions and the lambda expression
- Revision History and Acknowledgements
- 引用文献
- 日志 HOWTO
- 日志基础教程
- 进阶日志教程
- 日志级别
- 有用的处理程序
- 记录日志中引发的异常
- 使用任意对象作为消息
- 优化
- 日志操作手册
- 在多个模块中使用日志
- 在多线程中使用日志
- 使用多个日志处理器和多种格式化
- 在多个地方记录日志
- 日志服务器配置示例
- 处理日志处理器的阻塞
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- Use of alternative formatting styles
- Customizing LogRecord
- Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
- Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
- A more elaborate multiprocessing example
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Customizing handlers with dictConfig()
- Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
- Configuring filters with dictConfig()
- Customized exception formatting
- Speaking logging messages
- Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
- Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
- Using a context manager for selective logging
- 正则表达式HOWTO
- 概述
- 简单模式
- 使用正则表达式
- 更多模式能力
- 修改字符串
- 常见问题
- 反馈
- 套接字编程指南
- 套接字
- 创建套接字
- 使用一个套接字
- 断开连接
- 非阻塞的套接字
- 排序指南
- 基本排序
- 关键函数
- Operator 模块函数
- 升序和降序
- 排序稳定性和排序复杂度
- 使用装饰-排序-去装饰的旧方法
- 使用 cmp 参数的旧方法
- 其它
- Unicode 指南
- Unicode 概述
- Python's Unicode Support
- Reading and Writing Unicode Data
- Acknowledgements
- 如何使用urllib包获取网络资源
- 概述
- Fetching URLs
- 处理异常
- info and geturl
- Openers and Handlers
- Basic Authentication
- Proxies
- Sockets and Layers
- 脚注
- Argparse 教程
- 概念
- 基础
- 位置参数介绍
- Introducing Optional arguments
- Combining Positional and Optional arguments
- Getting a little more advanced
- Conclusion
- ipaddress模块介绍
- 创建 Address/Network/Interface 对象
- 审查 Address/Network/Interface 对象
- Network 作为 Address 列表
- 比较
- 将IP地址与其他模块一起使用
- 实例创建失败时获取更多详细信息
- Argument Clinic How-To
- The Goals Of Argument Clinic
- Basic Concepts And Usage
- Converting Your First Function
- Advanced Topics
- 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 检测CPython
- Enabling the static markers
- Static DTrace probes
- Static SystemTap markers
- Available static markers
- SystemTap Tapsets
- 示例
- Python 常见问题
- Python常见问题
- 一般信息
- 现实世界中的 Python
- 编程常见问题
- 一般问题
- 核心语言
- 数字和字符串
- 性能
- 序列（元组/列表）
- 对象
- 模块
- 设计和历史常见问题
- 为什么Python使用缩进来分组语句？
- 为什么简单的算术运算得到奇怪的结果？
- 为什么浮点计算不准确？
- 为什么Python字符串是不可变的？
- 为什么必须在方法定义和调用中显式使用“self”？
- 为什么不能在表达式中赋值？
- 为什么Python对某些功能（例如list.index()）使用方法来实现，而其他功能（例如len(List)）使用函数实现？
- 为什么 join()是一个字符串方法而不是列表或元组方法？
- 异常有多快？
- 为什么Python中没有switch或case语句？
- 难道不能在解释器中模拟线程，而非得依赖特定于操作系统的线程实现吗？
- 为什么lambda表达式不能包含语句？
- 可以将Python编译为机器代码，C或其他语言吗？
- Python如何管理内存？
- 为什么CPython不使用更传统的垃圾回收方案？
- CPython退出时为什么不释放所有内存？
- 为什么有单独的元组和列表数据类型？
- 列表是如何在CPython中实现的？
- 字典是如何在CPython中实现的？
- 为什么字典key必须是不可变的？
- 为什么 list.sort() 没有返回排序列表？
- 如何在Python中指定和实施接口规范？
- 为什么没有goto？
- 为什么原始字符串（r-strings）不能以反斜杠结尾？
- 为什么Python没有属性赋值的“with”语句？
- 为什么 if/while/def/class语句需要冒号？
- 为什么Python在列表和元组的末尾允许使用逗号？
- 代码库和插件 FAQ
- 通用的代码库问题
- 通用任务
- 线程相关
- 输入输出
- 网络 / Internet 编程
- 数据库
- 数学和数字
- 扩展/嵌入常见问题
- 可以使用C语言中创建自己的函数吗？
- 可以使用C++语言中创建自己的函数吗？
- C很难写，有没有其他选择？
- 如何从C执行任意Python语句？
- 如何从C中评估任意Python表达式？
- 如何从Python对象中提取C的值？
- 如何使用Py_BuildValue()创建任意长度的元组？
- 如何从C调用对象的方法？
- 如何捕获PyErr_Print()（或打印到stdout / stderr的任何内容）的输出？
- 如何从C访问用Python编写的模块？
- 如何从Python接口到C ++对象？
- 我使用Setup文件添加了一个模块，为什么make失败了？
- 如何调试扩展？
- 我想在Linux系统上编译一个Python模块，但是缺少一些文件。为什么?
- 如何区分“输入不完整”和“输入无效”？
- 如何找到未定义的g++符号__builtin_new或__pure_virtual？
- 能否创建一个对象类，其中部分方法在C中实现，而其他方法在Python中实现（例如通过继承）？
- Python在Windows上的常见问题
- 我怎样在Windows下运行一个Python程序？
- 我怎么让 Python 脚本可执行？
- 为什么有时候 Python 程序会启动缓慢？
- 我怎样使用Python脚本制作可执行文件？
- *.pyd 文件和DLL文件相同吗？
- 我怎样将Python嵌入一个Windows程序？
- 如何让编辑器不要在我的 Python 源代码中插入 tab ？
- 如何在不阻塞的情况下检查按键？
- 图形用户界面（GUI）常见问题
- 图形界面常见问题
- Python 是否有平台无关的图形界面工具包？
- 有哪些Python的GUI工具是某个平台专用的？
- 有关Tkinter的问题
- “为什么我的电脑上安装了 Python ？”
- 什么是Python？
- 为什么我的电脑上安装了 Python ？
- 我能删除 Python 吗？
- 术语对照表
- 文档说明
- Python 文档贡献者
- 解决 Bug
- 文档错误
- 使用 Python 的错误追踪系统
- 开始为 Python 贡献您的知识
- 版权
- 历史和许可证
- 软件历史
- 访问Python或以其他方式使用Python的条款和条件
- Python 3.7.3 的 PSF 许可协议
- Python 2.0 的 BeOpen.com 许可协议
- Python 1.6.1 的 CNRI 许可协议
- Python 0.9.0 至 1.2 的 CWI 许可协议
- 集成软件的许可和认可
- Mersenne Twister
- 套接字
- Asynchronous socket services
- Cookie management
- Execution tracing
- UUencode and UUdecode functions
- XML Remote Procedure Calls
- test_epoll
- Select kqueue
- SipHash24
- strtod and dtoa
- OpenSSL
- expat
- libffi
- zlib
- cfuhash
- libmpdec