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# [`wsgiref`](#module-wsgiref "wsgiref: WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.") --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
- - - - - -
The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) is a standard interface between web server software and web applications written in Python. Having a standard interface makes it easy to use an application that supports WSGI with a number of different web servers.
Only authors of web servers and programming frameworks need to know every detail and corner case of the WSGI design. You don't need to understand every detail of WSGI just to install a WSGI application or to write a web application using an existing framework.
[`wsgiref`](#module-wsgiref "wsgiref: WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.") is a reference implementation of the WSGI specification that can be used to add WSGI support to a web server or framework. It provides utilities for manipulating WSGI environment variables and response headers, base classes for implementing WSGI servers, a demo HTTP server that serves WSGI applications, and a validation tool that checks WSGI servers and applications for conformance to the WSGI specification ([**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\]).
See [wsgi.readthedocs.io](https://wsgi.readthedocs.io/) \[https://wsgi.readthedocs.io/\] for more information about WSGI, and links to tutorials and other resources.
## [`wsgiref.util`](#module-wsgiref.util "wsgiref.util: WSGI environment utilities.") -- WSGI environment utilities
This module provides a variety of utility functions for working with WSGI environments. A WSGI environment is a dictionary containing HTTP request variables as described in [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\]. All of the functions taking an *environ*parameter expect a WSGI-compliant dictionary to be supplied; please see [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\] for a detailed specification.
`wsgiref.util.``guess_scheme`(*environ*)Return a guess for whether `wsgi.url_scheme` should be "http" or "https", by checking for a `HTTPS` environment variable in the *environ* dictionary. The return value is a string.
This function is useful when creating a gateway that wraps CGI or a CGI-like protocol such as FastCGI. Typically, servers providing such protocols will include a `HTTPS` variable with a value of "1" "yes", or "on" when a request is received via SSL. So, this function returns "https" if such a value is found, and "http" otherwise.
`wsgiref.util.``request_uri`(*environ*, *include\_query=True*)Return the full request URI, optionally including the query string, using the algorithm found in the "URL Reconstruction" section of [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\]. If *include\_query* is false, the query string is not included in the resulting URI.
`wsgiref.util.``application_uri`(*environ*)Similar to [`request_uri()`](#wsgiref.util.request_uri "wsgiref.util.request_uri"), except that the `PATH_INFO` and `QUERY_STRING` variables are ignored. The result is the base URI of the application object addressed by the request.
`wsgiref.util.``shift_path_info`(*environ*)Shift a single name from `PATH_INFO` to `SCRIPT_NAME` and return the name. The *environ* dictionary is *modified* in-place; use a copy if you need to keep the original `PATH_INFO` or `SCRIPT_NAME` intact.
If there are no remaining path segments in `PATH_INFO`, `None` is returned.
Typically, this routine is used to process each portion of a request URI path, for example to treat the path as a series of dictionary keys. This routine modifies the passed-in environment to make it suitable for invoking another WSGI application that is located at the target URI. For example, if there is a WSGI application at `/foo`, and the request URI path is `/foo/bar/baz`, and the WSGI application at `/foo` calls [`shift_path_info()`](#wsgiref.util.shift_path_info "wsgiref.util.shift_path_info"), it will receive the string "bar", and the environment will be updated to be suitable for passing to a WSGI application at `/foo/bar`. That is, `SCRIPT_NAME` will change from `/foo` to `/foo/bar`, and `PATH_INFO` will change from `/bar/baz` to `/baz`.
When `PATH_INFO` is just a "/", this routine returns an empty string and appends a trailing slash to `SCRIPT_NAME`, even though empty path segments are normally ignored, and `SCRIPT_NAME` doesn't normally end in a slash. This is intentional behavior, to ensure that an application can tell the difference between URIs ending in `/x` from ones ending in `/x/` when using this routine to do object traversal.
`wsgiref.util.``setup_testing_defaults`(*environ*)Update *environ* with trivial defaults for testing purposes.
This routine adds various parameters required for WSGI, including `HTTP_HOST`, `SERVER_NAME`, `SERVER_PORT`, `REQUEST_METHOD`, `SCRIPT_NAME`, `PATH_INFO`, and all of the [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\]-defined `wsgi.*` variables. It only supplies default values, and does not replace any existing settings for these variables.
This routine is intended to make it easier for unit tests of WSGI servers and applications to set up dummy environments. It should NOT be used by actual WSGI servers or applications, since the data is fake!
Example usage:
```
from wsgiref.util import setup_testing_defaults
from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server
# A relatively simple WSGI application. It's going to print out the
# environment dictionary after being updated by setup_testing_defaults
def simple_app(environ, start_response):
setup_testing_defaults(environ)
status = '200 OK'
headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain; charset=utf-8')]
start_response(status, headers)
ret = [("%s: %s\n" % (key, value)).encode("utf-8")
for key, value in environ.items()]
return ret
with make_server('', 8000, simple_app) as httpd:
print("Serving on port 8000...")
httpd.serve_forever()
```
In addition to the environment functions above, the [`wsgiref.util`](#module-wsgiref.util "wsgiref.util: WSGI environment utilities.") module also provides these miscellaneous utilities:
`wsgiref.util.``is_hop_by_hop`(*header\_name*)Return true if 'header\_name' is an HTTP/1.1 "Hop-by-Hop" header, as defined by [**RFC 2616**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html\].
*class* `wsgiref.util.``FileWrapper`(*filelike*, *blksize=8192*)A wrapper to convert a file-like object to an [iterator](../glossary.xhtml#term-iterator). The resulting objects support both [`__getitem__()`](../reference/datamodel.xhtml#object.__getitem__ "object.__getitem__") and [`__iter__()`](../reference/datamodel.xhtml#object.__iter__ "object.__iter__") iteration styles, for compatibility with Python 2.1 and Jython. As the object is iterated over, the optional *blksize* parameter will be repeatedly passed to the *filelike*object's `read()` method to obtain bytestrings to yield. When `read()`returns an empty bytestring, iteration is ended and is not resumable.
If *filelike* has a `close()` method, the returned object will also have a `close()` method, and it will invoke the *filelike* object's `close()`method when called.
Example usage:
```
from io import StringIO
from wsgiref.util import FileWrapper
# We're using a StringIO-buffer for as the file-like object
filelike = StringIO("This is an example file-like object"*10)
wrapper = FileWrapper(filelike, blksize=5)
for chunk in wrapper:
print(chunk)
```
## [`wsgiref.headers`](#module-wsgiref.headers "wsgiref.headers: WSGI response header tools.") -- WSGI response header tools
This module provides a single class, [`Headers`](#wsgiref.headers.Headers "wsgiref.headers.Headers"), for convenient manipulation of WSGI response headers using a mapping-like interface.
*class* `wsgiref.headers.``Headers`(\[*headers*\])Create a mapping-like object wrapping *headers*, which must be a list of header name/value tuples as described in [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\]. The default value of *headers* is an empty list.
[`Headers`](#wsgiref.headers.Headers "wsgiref.headers.Headers") objects support typical mapping operations including [`__getitem__()`](../reference/datamodel.xhtml#object.__getitem__ "object.__getitem__"), `get()`, [`__setitem__()`](../reference/datamodel.xhtml#object.__setitem__ "object.__setitem__"), `setdefault()`, [`__delitem__()`](../reference/datamodel.xhtml#object.__delitem__ "object.__delitem__") and [`__contains__()`](../reference/datamodel.xhtml#object.__contains__ "object.__contains__"). For each of these methods, the key is the header name (treated case-insensitively), and the value is the first value associated with that header name. Setting a header deletes any existing values for that header, then adds a new value at the end of the wrapped header list. Headers' existing order is generally maintained, with new headers added to the end of the wrapped list.
Unlike a dictionary, [`Headers`](#wsgiref.headers.Headers "wsgiref.headers.Headers") objects do not raise an error when you try to get or delete a key that isn't in the wrapped header list. Getting a nonexistent header just returns `None`, and deleting a nonexistent header does nothing.
[`Headers`](#wsgiref.headers.Headers "wsgiref.headers.Headers") objects also support `keys()`, `values()`, and `items()` methods. The lists returned by `keys()` and `items()` can include the same key more than once if there is a multi-valued header. The `len()` of a [`Headers`](#wsgiref.headers.Headers "wsgiref.headers.Headers") object is the same as the length of its `items()`, which is the same as the length of the wrapped header list. In fact, the `items()` method just returns a copy of the wrapped header list.
Calling `bytes()` on a [`Headers`](#wsgiref.headers.Headers "wsgiref.headers.Headers") object returns a formatted bytestring suitable for transmission as HTTP response headers. Each header is placed on a line with its value, separated by a colon and a space. Each line is terminated by a carriage return and line feed, and the bytestring is terminated with a blank line.
In addition to their mapping interface and formatting features, [`Headers`](#wsgiref.headers.Headers "wsgiref.headers.Headers")objects also have the following methods for querying and adding multi-valued headers, and for adding headers with MIME parameters:
`get_all`(*name*)Return a list of all the values for the named header.
The returned list will be sorted in the order they appeared in the original header list or were added to this instance, and may contain duplicates. Any fields deleted and re-inserted are always appended to the header list. If no fields exist with the given name, returns an empty list.
`add_header`(*name*, *value*, *\*\*\_params*)Add a (possibly multi-valued) header, with optional MIME parameters specified via keyword arguments.
*name* is the header field to add. Keyword arguments can be used to set MIME parameters for the header field. Each parameter must be a string or `None`. Underscores in parameter names are converted to dashes, since dashes are illegal in Python identifiers, but many MIME parameter names include dashes. If the parameter value is a string, it is added to the header value parameters in the form `name="value"`. If it is `None`, only the parameter name is added. (This is used for MIME parameters without a value.) Example usage:
```
h.add_header('content-disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')
```
The above will add a header that looks like this:
```
Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"
```
在 3.5 版更改: *headers* parameter is optional.
## [`wsgiref.simple_server`](#module-wsgiref.simple_server "wsgiref.simple_server: A simple WSGI HTTP server.") -- a simple WSGI HTTP server
This module implements a simple HTTP server (based on [`http.server`](http.server.xhtml#module-http.server "http.server: HTTP server and request handlers.")) that serves WSGI applications. Each server instance serves a single WSGI application on a given host and port. If you want to serve multiple applications on a single host and port, you should create a WSGI application that parses `PATH_INFO` to select which application to invoke for each request. (E.g., using the `shift_path_info()` function from [`wsgiref.util`](#module-wsgiref.util "wsgiref.util: WSGI environment utilities.").)
`wsgiref.simple_server.``make_server`(*host*, *port*, *app*, *server\_class=WSGIServer*, *handler\_class=WSGIRequestHandler*)Create a new WSGI server listening on *host* and *port*, accepting connections for *app*. The return value is an instance of the supplied *server\_class*, and will process requests using the specified *handler\_class*. *app* must be a WSGI application object, as defined by [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\].
Example usage:
```
from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server, demo_app
with make_server('', 8000, demo_app) as httpd:
print("Serving HTTP on port 8000...")
# Respond to requests until process is killed
httpd.serve_forever()
# Alternative: serve one request, then exit
httpd.handle_request()
```
`wsgiref.simple_server.``demo_app`(*environ*, *start\_response*)This function is a small but complete WSGI application that returns a text page containing the message "Hello world!" and a list of the key/value pairs provided in the *environ* parameter. It's useful for verifying that a WSGI server (such as [`wsgiref.simple_server`](#module-wsgiref.simple_server "wsgiref.simple_server: A simple WSGI HTTP server.")) is able to run a simple WSGI application correctly.
*class* `wsgiref.simple_server.``WSGIServer`(*server\_address*, *RequestHandlerClass*)Create a [`WSGIServer`](#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer "wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer") instance. *server\_address* should be a `(host,port)` tuple, and *RequestHandlerClass* should be the subclass of [`http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler`](http.server.xhtml#http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler "http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler") that will be used to process requests.
You do not normally need to call this constructor, as the [`make_server()`](#wsgiref.simple_server.make_server "wsgiref.simple_server.make_server")function can handle all the details for you.
[`WSGIServer`](#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer "wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer") is a subclass of [`http.server.HTTPServer`](http.server.xhtml#http.server.HTTPServer "http.server.HTTPServer"), so all of its methods (such as `serve_forever()` and `handle_request()`) are available. [`WSGIServer`](#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer "wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer") also provides these WSGI-specific methods:
`set_app`(*application*)Sets the callable *application* as the WSGI application that will receive requests.
`get_app`()Returns the currently-set application callable.
Normally, however, you do not need to use these additional methods, as [`set_app()`](#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.set_app "wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.set_app") is normally called by [`make_server()`](#wsgiref.simple_server.make_server "wsgiref.simple_server.make_server"), and the [`get_app()`](#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.get_app "wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer.get_app") exists mainly for the benefit of request handler instances.
*class* `wsgiref.simple_server.``WSGIRequestHandler`(*request*, *client\_address*, *server*)Create an HTTP handler for the given *request* (i.e. a socket), *client\_address*(a `(host,port)` tuple), and *server* ([`WSGIServer`](#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer "wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer") instance).
You do not need to create instances of this class directly; they are automatically created as needed by [`WSGIServer`](#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer "wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer") objects. You can, however, subclass this class and supply it as a *handler\_class* to the [`make_server()`](#wsgiref.simple_server.make_server "wsgiref.simple_server.make_server") function. Some possibly relevant methods for overriding in subclasses:
`get_environ`()Returns a dictionary containing the WSGI environment for a request. The default implementation copies the contents of the [`WSGIServer`](#wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer "wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer") object's `base_environ` dictionary attribute and then adds various headers derived from the HTTP request. Each call to this method should return a new dictionary containing all of the relevant CGI environment variables as specified in [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\].
`get_stderr`()Return the object that should be used as the `wsgi.errors` stream. The default implementation just returns `sys.stderr`.
`handle`()Process the HTTP request. The default implementation creates a handler instance using a [`wsgiref.handlers`](#module-wsgiref.handlers "wsgiref.handlers: WSGI server/gateway base classes.") class to implement the actual WSGI application interface.
## [`wsgiref.validate`](#module-wsgiref.validate "wsgiref.validate: WSGI conformance checker.") --- WSGI conformance checker
When creating new WSGI application objects, frameworks, servers, or middleware, it can be useful to validate the new code's conformance using [`wsgiref.validate`](#module-wsgiref.validate "wsgiref.validate: WSGI conformance checker."). This module provides a function that creates WSGI application objects that validate communications between a WSGI server or gateway and a WSGI application object, to check both sides for protocol conformance.
Note that this utility does not guarantee complete [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\] compliance; an absence of errors from this module does not necessarily mean that errors do not exist. However, if this module does produce an error, then it is virtually certain that either the server or application is not 100% compliant.
This module is based on the `paste.lint` module from Ian Bicking's "Python Paste" library.
`wsgiref.validate.``validator`(*application*)Wrap *application* and return a new WSGI application object. The returned application will forward all requests to the original *application*, and will check that both the *application* and the server invoking it are conforming to the WSGI specification and to [**RFC 2616**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html\].
Any detected nonconformance results in an [`AssertionError`](exceptions.xhtml#AssertionError "AssertionError") being raised; note, however, that how these errors are handled is server-dependent. For example, [`wsgiref.simple_server`](#module-wsgiref.simple_server "wsgiref.simple_server: A simple WSGI HTTP server.") and other servers based on [`wsgiref.handlers`](#module-wsgiref.handlers "wsgiref.handlers: WSGI server/gateway base classes.") (that don't override the error handling methods to do something else) will simply output a message that an error has occurred, and dump the traceback to `sys.stderr` or some other error stream.
This wrapper may also generate output using the [`warnings`](warnings.xhtml#module-warnings "warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition.") module to indicate behaviors that are questionable but which may not actually be prohibited by [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\]. Unless they are suppressed using Python command-line options or the [`warnings`](warnings.xhtml#module-warnings "warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition.") API, any such warnings will be written to `sys.stderr` (*not*`wsgi.errors`, unless they happen to be the same object).
Example usage:
```
from wsgiref.validate import validator
from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server
# Our callable object which is intentionally not compliant to the
# standard, so the validator is going to break
def simple_app(environ, start_response):
status = '200 OK' # HTTP Status
headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain')] # HTTP Headers
start_response(status, headers)
# This is going to break because we need to return a list, and
# the validator is going to inform us
return b"Hello World"
# This is the application wrapped in a validator
validator_app = validator(simple_app)
with make_server('', 8000, validator_app) as httpd:
print("Listening on port 8000....")
httpd.serve_forever()
```
## [`wsgiref.handlers`](#module-wsgiref.handlers "wsgiref.handlers: WSGI server/gateway base classes.") -- server/gateway base classes
This module provides base handler classes for implementing WSGI servers and gateways. These base classes handle most of the work of communicating with a WSGI application, as long as they are given a CGI-like environment, along with input, output, and error streams.
*class* `wsgiref.handlers.``CGIHandler`CGI-based invocation via `sys.stdin`, `sys.stdout`, `sys.stderr` and `os.environ`. This is useful when you have a WSGI application and want to run it as a CGI script. Simply invoke `CGIHandler().run(app)`, where `app` is the WSGI application object you wish to invoke.
This class is a subclass of [`BaseCGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler") that sets `wsgi.run_once`to true, `wsgi.multithread` to false, and `wsgi.multiprocess` to true, and always uses [`sys`](sys.xhtml#module-sys "sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions.") and [`os`](os.xhtml#module-os "os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.") to obtain the necessary CGI streams and environment.
*class* `wsgiref.handlers.``IISCGIHandler`A specialized alternative to [`CGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler"), for use when deploying on Microsoft's IIS web server, without having set the config allowPathInfo option (IIS>=7) or metabase allowPathInfoForScriptMappings (IIS<7).
By default, IIS gives a `PATH_INFO` that duplicates the `SCRIPT_NAME` at the front, causing problems for WSGI applications that wish to implement routing. This handler strips any such duplicated path.
IIS can be configured to pass the correct `PATH_INFO`, but this causes another bug where `PATH_TRANSLATED` is wrong. Luckily this variable is rarely used and is not guaranteed by WSGI. On IIS<7, though, the setting can only be made on a vhost level, affecting all other script mappings, many of which break when exposed to the `PATH_TRANSLATED` bug. For this reason IIS<7 is almost never deployed with the fix. (Even IIS7 rarely uses it because there is still no UI for it.)
There is no way for CGI code to tell whether the option was set, so a separate handler class is provided. It is used in the same way as [`CGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler"), i.e., by calling `IISCGIHandler().run(app)`, where `app` is the WSGI application object you wish to invoke.
3\.2 新版功能.
*class* `wsgiref.handlers.``BaseCGIHandler`(*stdin*, *stdout*, *stderr*, *environ*, *multithread=True*, *multiprocess=False*)Similar to [`CGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler"), but instead of using the [`sys`](sys.xhtml#module-sys "sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions.") and [`os`](os.xhtml#module-os "os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.") modules, the CGI environment and I/O streams are specified explicitly. The *multithread* and *multiprocess* values are used to set the `wsgi.multithread` and `wsgi.multiprocess` flags for any applications run by the handler instance.
This class is a subclass of [`SimpleHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler "wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler") intended for use with software other than HTTP "origin servers". If you are writing a gateway protocol implementation (such as CGI, FastCGI, SCGI, etc.) that uses a `Status:` header to send an HTTP status, you probably want to subclass this instead of [`SimpleHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler "wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler").
*class* `wsgiref.handlers.``SimpleHandler`(*stdin*, *stdout*, *stderr*, *environ*, *multithread=True*, *multiprocess=False*)Similar to [`BaseCGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler"), but designed for use with HTTP origin servers. If you are writing an HTTP server implementation, you will probably want to subclass this instead of [`BaseCGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler").
This class is a subclass of [`BaseHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"). It overrides the [`__init__()`](../reference/datamodel.xhtml#object.__init__ "object.__init__"), `get_stdin()`, `get_stderr()`, `add_cgi_vars()`, `_write()`, and `_flush()` methods to support explicitly setting the environment and streams via the constructor. The supplied environment and streams are stored in the `stdin`, `stdout`, `stderr`, and `environ` attributes.
The [`write()`](io.xhtml#io.BufferedIOBase.write "io.BufferedIOBase.write") method of *stdout* should write each chunk in full, like [`io.BufferedIOBase`](io.xhtml#io.BufferedIOBase "io.BufferedIOBase").
*class* `wsgiref.handlers.``BaseHandler`This is an abstract base class for running WSGI applications. Each instance will handle a single HTTP request, although in principle you could create a subclass that was reusable for multiple requests.
[`BaseHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler") instances have only one method intended for external use:
`run`(*app*)Run the specified WSGI application, *app*.
All of the other [`BaseHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler") methods are invoked by this method in the process of running the application, and thus exist primarily to allow customizing the process.
The following methods MUST be overridden in a subclass:
`_write`(*data*)Buffer the bytes *data* for transmission to the client. It's okay if this method actually transmits the data; [`BaseHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler") just separates write and flush operations for greater efficiency when the underlying system actually has such a distinction.
`_flush`()Force buffered data to be transmitted to the client. It's okay if this method is a no-op (i.e., if [`_write()`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write") actually sends the data).
`get_stdin`()Return an input stream object suitable for use as the `wsgi.input` of the request currently being processed.
`get_stderr`()Return an output stream object suitable for use as the `wsgi.errors` of the request currently being processed.
`add_cgi_vars`()Insert CGI variables for the current request into the `environ` attribute.
Here are some other methods and attributes you may wish to override. This list is only a summary, however, and does not include every method that can be overridden. You should consult the docstrings and source code for additional information before attempting to create a customized [`BaseHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler")subclass.
Attributes and methods for customizing the WSGI environment:
`wsgi_multithread`The value to be used for the `wsgi.multithread` environment variable. It defaults to true in [`BaseHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"), but may have a different default (or be set by the constructor) in the other subclasses.
`wsgi_multiprocess`The value to be used for the `wsgi.multiprocess` environment variable. It defaults to true in [`BaseHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"), but may have a different default (or be set by the constructor) in the other subclasses.
`wsgi_run_once`The value to be used for the `wsgi.run_once` environment variable. It defaults to false in [`BaseHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"), but [`CGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler") sets it to true by default.
`os_environ`The default environment variables to be included in every request's WSGI environment. By default, this is a copy of `os.environ` at the time that [`wsgiref.handlers`](#module-wsgiref.handlers "wsgiref.handlers: WSGI server/gateway base classes.") was imported, but subclasses can either create their own at the class or instance level. Note that the dictionary should be considered read-only, since the default value is shared between multiple classes and instances.
`server_software`If the [`origin_server`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server") attribute is set, this attribute's value is used to set the default `SERVER_SOFTWARE` WSGI environment variable, and also to set a default `Server:` header in HTTP responses. It is ignored for handlers (such as [`BaseCGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler") and [`CGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler")) that are not HTTP origin servers.
在 3.3 版更改: The term "Python" is replaced with implementation specific term like "CPython", "Jython" etc.
`get_scheme`()Return the URL scheme being used for the current request. The default implementation uses the `guess_scheme()` function from [`wsgiref.util`](#module-wsgiref.util "wsgiref.util: WSGI environment utilities.")to guess whether the scheme should be "http" or "https", based on the current request's `environ` variables.
`setup_environ`()Set the `environ` attribute to a fully-populated WSGI environment. The default implementation uses all of the above methods and attributes, plus the [`get_stdin()`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stdin "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stdin"), [`get_stderr()`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stderr "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.get_stderr"), and [`add_cgi_vars()`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.add_cgi_vars "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.add_cgi_vars") methods and the [`wsgi_file_wrapper`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper") attribute. It also inserts a `SERVER_SOFTWARE` key if not present, as long as the [`origin_server`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server") attribute is a true value and the [`server_software`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.server_software "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.server_software") attribute is set.
Methods and attributes for customizing exception handling:
`log_exception`(*exc\_info*)Log the *exc\_info* tuple in the server log. *exc\_info* is a
```
(type, value,
traceback)
```
tuple. The default implementation simply writes the traceback to the request's `wsgi.errors` stream and flushes it. Subclasses can override this method to change the format or retarget the output, mail the traceback to an administrator, or whatever other action may be deemed suitable.
`traceback_limit`The maximum number of frames to include in tracebacks output by the default [`log_exception()`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.log_exception "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.log_exception") method. If `None`, all frames are included.
`error_output`(*environ*, *start\_response*)This method is a WSGI application to generate an error page for the user. It is only invoked if an error occurs before headers are sent to the client.
This method can access the current error information using `sys.exc_info()`, and should pass that information to *start\_response* when calling it (as described in the "Error Handling" section of [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\]).
The default implementation just uses the [`error_status`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_status "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_status"), [`error_headers`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_headers "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_headers"), and [`error_body`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_body "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.error_body") attributes to generate an output page. Subclasses can override this to produce more dynamic error output.
Note, however, that it's not recommended from a security perspective to spit out diagnostics to any old user; ideally, you should have to do something special to enable diagnostic output, which is why the default implementation doesn't include any.
`error_status`The HTTP status used for error responses. This should be a status string as defined in [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\]; it defaults to a 500 code and message.
`error_headers`The HTTP headers used for error responses. This should be a list of WSGI response headers (`(name, value)` tuples), as described in [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\]. The default list just sets the content type to `text/plain`.
`error_body`The error response body. This should be an HTTP response body bytestring. It defaults to the plain text, "A server error occurred. Please contact the administrator."
Methods and attributes for [**PEP 3333**](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333) \[https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333\]'s "Optional Platform-Specific File Handling" feature:
`wsgi_file_wrapper`A `wsgi.file_wrapper` factory, or `None`. The default value of this attribute is the [`wsgiref.util.FileWrapper`](#wsgiref.util.FileWrapper "wsgiref.util.FileWrapper") class.
`sendfile`()Override to implement platform-specific file transmission. This method is called only if the application's return value is an instance of the class specified by the [`wsgi_file_wrapper`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.wsgi_file_wrapper") attribute. It should return a true value if it was able to successfully transmit the file, so that the default transmission code will not be executed. The default implementation of this method just returns a false value.
Miscellaneous methods and attributes:
`origin_server`This attribute should be set to a true value if the handler's [`_write()`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._write") and [`_flush()`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._flush "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler._flush") are being used to communicate directly to the client, rather than via a CGI-like gateway protocol that wants the HTTP status in a special `Status:` header.
This attribute's default value is true in [`BaseHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler"), but false in [`BaseCGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler") and [`CGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler").
`http_version`If [`origin_server`](#wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server "wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler.origin_server") is true, this string attribute is used to set the HTTP version of the response set to the client. It defaults to `"1.0"`.
`wsgiref.handlers.``read_environ`()Transcode CGI variables from `os.environ` to PEP 3333 "bytes in unicode" strings, returning a new dictionary. This function is used by [`CGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler") and [`IISCGIHandler`](#wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler "wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler") in place of directly using `os.environ`, which is not necessarily WSGI-compliant on all platforms and web servers using Python 3 -- specifically, ones where the OS's actual environment is Unicode (i.e. Windows), or ones where the environment is bytes, but the system encoding used by Python to decode it is anything other than ISO-8859-1 (e.g. Unix systems using UTF-8).
If you are implementing a CGI-based handler of your own, you probably want to use this routine instead of just copying values out of `os.environ`directly.
3\.2 新版功能.
## 示例
This is a working "Hello World" WSGI application:
```
from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server
# Every WSGI application must have an application object - a callable
# object that accepts two arguments. For that purpose, we're going to
# use a function (note that you're not limited to a function, you can
# use a class for example). The first argument passed to the function
# is a dictionary containing CGI-style environment variables and the
# second variable is the callable object (see PEP 333).
def hello_world_app(environ, start_response):
status = '200 OK' # HTTP Status
headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain; charset=utf-8')] # HTTP Headers
start_response(status, headers)
# The returned object is going to be printed
return [b"Hello World"]
with make_server('', 8000, hello_world_app) as httpd:
print("Serving on port 8000...")
# Serve until process is killed
httpd.serve_forever()
```
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- 运算符
- 分隔符
- 数据模型
- 对象、值与类型
- 标准类型层级结构
- 特殊方法名称
- 协程
- 执行模型
- 程序的结构
- 命名与绑定
- 异常
- 导入系统
- importlib
- 包
- 搜索
- 加载
- 基于路径的查找器
- 替换标准导入系统
- Package Relative Imports
- 有关 main 的特殊事项
- 开放问题项
- 参考文献
- 表达式
- 算术转换
- 原子
- 原型
- await 表达式
- 幂运算符
- 一元算术和位运算
- 二元算术运算符
- 移位运算
- 二元位运算
- 比较运算
- 布尔运算
- 条件表达式
- lambda 表达式
- 表达式列表
- 求值顺序
- 运算符优先级
- 简单语句
- 表达式语句
- 赋值语句
- assert 语句
- pass 语句
- del 语句
- return 语句
- yield 语句
- raise 语句
- break 语句
- continue 语句
- import 语句
- global 语句
- nonlocal 语句
- 复合语句
- if 语句
- while 语句
- for 语句
- try 语句
- with 语句
- 函数定义
- 类定义
- 协程
- 最高层级组件
- 完整的 Python 程序
- 文件输入
- 交互式输入
- 表达式输入
- 完整的语法规范
- Python 标准库
- 概述
- 可用性注释
- 内置函数
- 内置常量
- 由 site 模块添加的常量
- 内置类型
- 逻辑值检测
- 布尔运算 — and, or, not
- 比较
- 数字类型 — int, float, complex
- 迭代器类型
- 序列类型 — list, tuple, range
- 文本序列类型 — str
- 二进制序列类型 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview
- 集合类型 — set, frozenset
- 映射类型 — dict
- 上下文管理器类型
- 其他内置类型
- 特殊属性
- 内置异常
- 基类
- 具体异常
- 警告
- 异常层次结构
- 文本处理服务
- string — 常见的字符串操作
- re — 正则表达式操作
- 模块 difflib 是一个计算差异的助手
- textwrap — Text wrapping and filling
- unicodedata — Unicode 数据库
- stringprep — Internet String Preparation
- readline — GNU readline interface
- rlcompleter — GNU readline的完成函数
- 二进制数据服务
- struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data
- codecs — Codec registry and base classes
- 数据类型
- datetime — 基础日期/时间数据类型
- calendar — General calendar-related functions
- collections — 容器数据类型
- collections.abc — 容器的抽象基类
- heapq — 堆队列算法
- bisect — Array bisection algorithm
- array — Efficient arrays of numeric values
- weakref — 弱引用
- types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
- copy — 浅层 (shallow) 和深层 (deep) 复制操作
- pprint — 数据美化输出
- reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation
- enum — Support for enumerations
- 数字和数学模块
- numbers — 数字的抽象基类
- math — 数学函数
- cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
- decimal — 十进制定点和浮点运算
- fractions — 分数
- random — 生成伪随机数
- statistics — Mathematical statistics functions
- 函数式编程模块
- itertools — 为高效循环而创建迭代器的函数
- functools — 高阶函数和可调用对象上的操作
- operator — 标准运算符替代函数
- 文件和目录访问
- pathlib — 面向对象的文件系统路径
- os.path — 常见路径操作
- fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
- stat — Interpreting stat() results
- filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons
- tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories
- glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion
- fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching
- linecache — Random access to text lines
- shutil — High-level file operations
- macpath — Mac OS 9 路径操作函数
- 数据持久化
- pickle —— Python 对象序列化
- copyreg — Register pickle support functions
- shelve — Python object persistence
- marshal — Internal Python object serialization
- dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”
- sqlite3 — SQLite 数据库 DB-API 2.0 接口模块
- 数据压缩和存档
- zlib — 与 gzip 兼容的压缩
- gzip — 对 gzip 格式的支持
- bz2 — 对 bzip2 压缩算法的支持
- lzma — 用 LZMA 算法压缩
- zipfile — 在 ZIP 归档中工作
- tarfile — Read and write tar archive files
- 文件格式
- csv — CSV 文件读写
- configparser — Configuration file parser
- netrc — netrc file processing
- xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data
- plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files
- 加密服务
- hashlib — 安全哈希与消息摘要
- hmac — 基于密钥的消息验证
- secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
- 通用操作系统服务
- os — 操作系统接口模块
- io — 处理流的核心工具
- time — 时间的访问和转换
- argparse — 命令行选项、参数和子命令解析器
- getopt — C-style parser for command line options
- 模块 logging — Python 的日志记录工具
- logging.config — 日志记录配置
- logging.handlers — Logging handlers
- getpass — 便携式密码输入工具
- curses — 终端字符单元显示的处理
- curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs
- curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters
- curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses
- platform — Access to underlying platform's identifying data
- errno — Standard errno system symbols
- ctypes — Python 的外部函数库
- 并发执行
- threading — 基于线程的并行
- multiprocessing — 基于进程的并行
- concurrent 包
- concurrent.futures — 启动并行任务
- subprocess — 子进程管理
- sched — 事件调度器
- queue — 一个同步的队列类
- _thread — 底层多线程 API
- _dummy_thread — _thread 的替代模块
- dummy_threading — 可直接替代 threading 模块。
- contextvars — Context Variables
- Context Variables
- Manual Context Management
- asyncio support
- 网络和进程间通信
- asyncio — 异步 I/O
- socket — 底层网络接口
- ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
- select — Waiting for I/O completion
- selectors — 高级 I/O 复用库
- asyncore — 异步socket处理器
- asynchat — 异步 socket 指令/响应 处理器
- signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events
- mmap — Memory-mapped file support
- 互联网数据处理
- email — 电子邮件与 MIME 处理包
- json — JSON 编码和解码器
- mailcap — Mailcap file handling
- mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
- mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types
- base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 数据编码
- binhex — 对binhex4文件进行编码和解码
- binascii — 二进制和 ASCII 码互转
- quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
- uu — Encode and decode uuencode files
- 结构化标记处理工具
- html — 超文本标记语言支持
- html.parser — 简单的 HTML 和 XHTML 解析器
- html.entities — HTML 一般实体的定义
- XML处理模块
- xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API
- xml.dom — The Document Object Model API
- xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation
- xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees
- xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers
- xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers
- xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities
- xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers
- xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat
- 互联网协议和支持
- webbrowser — 方便的Web浏览器控制器
- cgi — Common Gateway Interface support
- cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts
- wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
- urllib — URL 处理模块
- urllib.request — 用于打开 URL 的可扩展库
- urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib
- urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components
- urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request
- urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt
- http — HTTP 模块
- http.client — HTTP协议客户端
- ftplib — FTP protocol client
- poplib — POP3 protocol client
- imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client
- nntplib — NNTP protocol client
- smtplib —SMTP协议客户端
- smtpd — SMTP Server
- telnetlib — Telnet client
- uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122
- socketserver — A framework for network servers
- http.server — HTTP 服务器
- http.cookies — HTTP state management
- http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients
- xmlrpc — XMLRPC 服务端与客户端模块
- xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access
- xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers
- ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
- 多媒体服务
- audioop — Manipulate raw audio data
- aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
- sunau — 读写 Sun AU 文件
- wave — 读写WAV格式文件
- chunk — Read IFF chunked data
- colorsys — Conversions between color systems
- imghdr — 推测图像类型
- sndhdr — 推测声音文件的类型
- ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
- 国际化
- gettext — 多语种国际化服务
- locale — 国际化服务
- 程序框架
- turtle — 海龟绘图
- cmd — 支持面向行的命令解释器
- shlex — Simple lexical analysis
- Tk图形用户界面(GUI)
- tkinter — Tcl/Tk的Python接口
- tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets
- tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk
- tkinter.scrolledtext — 滚动文字控件
- IDLE
- 其他图形用户界面（GUI）包
- 开发工具
- typing — 类型标注支持
- pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system
- doctest — Test interactive Python examples
- unittest — 单元测试框架
- unittest.mock — mock object library
- unittest.mock 上手指南
- 2to3 - 自动将 Python 2 代码转为 Python 3 代码
- test — Regression tests package for Python
- test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite
- test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests
- 调试和分析
- bdb — Debugger framework
- faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback
- pdb — The Python Debugger
- The Python Profilers
- timeit — 测量小代码片段的执行时间
- trace — Trace or track Python statement execution
- tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations
- 软件打包和分发
- distutils — 构建和安装 Python 模块
- ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer
- venv — 创建虚拟环境
- zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives
- Python运行时服务
- sys — 系统相关的参数和函数
- sysconfig — Provide access to Python's configuration information
- builtins — 内建对象
- main — 顶层脚本环境
- warnings — Warning control
- dataclasses — 数据类
- contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts
- abc — 抽象基类
- atexit — 退出处理器
- traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback
- future — Future 语句定义
- gc — 垃圾回收器接口
- inspect — 检查对象
- site — Site-specific configuration hook
- 自定义 Python 解释器
- code — Interpreter base classes
- codeop — Compile Python code
- 导入模块
- zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives
- pkgutil — Package extension utility
- modulefinder — 查找脚本使用的模块
- runpy — Locating and executing Python modules
- importlib — The implementation of import
- Python 语言服务
- parser — Access Python parse trees
- ast — 抽象语法树
- symtable — Access to the compiler's symbol tables
- symbol — 与 Python 解析树一起使用的常量
- token — 与Python解析树一起使用的常量
- keyword — 检验Python关键字
- tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source
- tabnanny — 模糊缩进检测
- pyclbr — Python class browser support
- py_compile — Compile Python source files
- compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries
- dis — Python 字节码反汇编器
- pickletools — Tools for pickle developers
- 杂项服务
- formatter — Generic output formatting
- Windows系统相关模块
- msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files
- msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
- winreg — Windows 注册表访问
- winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows
- Unix 专有服务
- posix — The most common POSIX system calls
- pwd — 用户密码数据库
- spwd — The shadow password database
- grp — The group database
- crypt — Function to check Unix passwords
- termios — POSIX style tty control
- tty — 终端控制功能
- pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities
- fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls
- pipes — Interface to shell pipelines
- resource — Resource usage information
- nis — Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages)
- Unix syslog 库例程
- 被取代的模块
- optparse — Parser for command line options
- imp — Access the import internals
- 未创建文档的模块
- 平台特定模块
- 扩展和嵌入 Python 解释器
- 推荐的第三方工具
- 不使用第三方工具创建扩展
- 使用 C 或 C++ 扩展 Python
- 自定义扩展类型：教程
- 定义扩展类型：已分类主题
- 构建C/C++扩展
- 在Windows平台编译C和C++扩展
- 在更大的应用程序中嵌入 CPython 运行时
- Embedding Python in Another Application
- Python/C API 参考手册
- 概述
- 代码标准
- 包含文件
- 有用的宏
- 对象、类型和引用计数
- 异常
- 嵌入Python
- 调试构建
- 稳定的应用程序二进制接口
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- 异常处理
- Printing and clearing
- 抛出异常
- Issuing warnings
- Querying the error indicator
- Signal Handling
- Exception Classes
- Exception Objects
- Unicode Exception Objects
- Recursion Control
- 标准异常
- 标准警告类别
- 工具
- 操作系统实用程序
- 系统功能
- 过程控制
- 导入模块
- Data marshalling support
- 语句解释及变量编译
- 字符串转换与格式化
- 反射
- 编解码器注册与支持功能
- 抽象对象层
- Object Protocol
- 数字协议
- Sequence Protocol
- Mapping Protocol
- 迭代器协议
- 缓冲协议
- Old Buffer Protocol
- 具体的对象层
- 基本对象
- 数值对象
- 序列对象
- 容器对象
- 函数对象
- 其他对象
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- 在Python初始化之前
- 全局配置变量
- Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
- Process-wide parameters
- Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
- Sub-interpreter support
- Asynchronous Notifications
- Profiling and Tracing
- Advanced Debugger Support
- Thread Local Storage Support
- 内存管理
- 概述
- 原始内存接口
- Memory Interface
- 对象分配器
- 默认内存分配器
- Customize Memory Allocators
- The pymalloc allocator
- tracemalloc C API
- 示例
- 对象实现支持
- 在堆中分配对象
- Common Object Structures
- Type 对象
- Number Object Structures
- Mapping Object Structures
- Sequence Object Structures
- Buffer Object Structures
- Async Object Structures
- 使对象类型支持循环垃圾回收
- API 和 ABI 版本管理
- 分发 Python 模块
- 关键术语
- 开源许可与协作
- 安装工具
- 阅读指南
- 我该如何...？
- ...为我的项目选择一个名字？
- ...创建和分发二进制扩展？
- 安装 Python 模块
- 关键术语
- 基本使用
- 我应如何 ...？
- ... 在 Python 3.4 之前的 Python 版本中安装 pip ？
- ... 只为当前用户安装软件包？
- ... 安装科学计算类 Python 软件包？
- ... 使用并行安装的多个 Python 版本？
- 常见的安装问题
- 在 Linux 的系统 Python 版本上安装
- 未安装 pip
- 安装二进制编译扩展
- Python 常用指引
- 将 Python 2 代码迁移到 Python 3
- 简要说明
- 详情
- 将扩展模块移植到 Python 3
- 条件编译
- 对象API的更改
- 模块初始化和状态
- CObject 替换为 Capsule
- 其他选项
- Curses Programming with Python
- What is curses?
- Starting and ending a curses application
- Windows and Pads
- Displaying Text
- User Input
- For More Information
- 实现描述器
- 摘要
- 定义和简介
- 描述器协议
- 发起调用描述符
- 描述符示例
- Properties
- 函数和方法
- Static Methods and Class Methods
- 函数式编程指引
- 概述
- 迭代器
- 生成器表达式和列表推导式
- 生成器
- 内置函数
- itertools 模块
- The functools module
- Small functions and the lambda expression
- Revision History and Acknowledgements
- 引用文献
- 日志 HOWTO
- 日志基础教程
- 进阶日志教程
- 日志级别
- 有用的处理程序
- 记录日志中引发的异常
- 使用任意对象作为消息
- 优化
- 日志操作手册
- 在多个模块中使用日志
- 在多线程中使用日志
- 使用多个日志处理器和多种格式化
- 在多个地方记录日志
- 日志服务器配置示例
- 处理日志处理器的阻塞
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- Use of alternative formatting styles
- Customizing LogRecord
- Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
- Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
- A more elaborate multiprocessing example
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Customizing handlers with dictConfig()
- Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
- Configuring filters with dictConfig()
- Customized exception formatting
- Speaking logging messages
- Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
- Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
- Using a context manager for selective logging
- 正则表达式HOWTO
- 概述
- 简单模式
- 使用正则表达式
- 更多模式能力
- 修改字符串
- 常见问题
- 反馈
- 套接字编程指南
- 套接字
- 创建套接字
- 使用一个套接字
- 断开连接
- 非阻塞的套接字
- 排序指南
- 基本排序
- 关键函数
- Operator 模块函数
- 升序和降序
- 排序稳定性和排序复杂度
- 使用装饰-排序-去装饰的旧方法
- 使用 cmp 参数的旧方法
- 其它
- Unicode 指南
- Unicode 概述
- Python's Unicode Support
- Reading and Writing Unicode Data
- Acknowledgements
- 如何使用urllib包获取网络资源
- 概述
- Fetching URLs
- 处理异常
- info and geturl
- Openers and Handlers
- Basic Authentication
- Proxies
- Sockets and Layers
- 脚注
- Argparse 教程
- 概念
- 基础
- 位置参数介绍
- Introducing Optional arguments
- Combining Positional and Optional arguments
- Getting a little more advanced
- Conclusion
- ipaddress模块介绍
- 创建 Address/Network/Interface 对象
- 审查 Address/Network/Interface 对象
- Network 作为 Address 列表
- 比较
- 将IP地址与其他模块一起使用
- 实例创建失败时获取更多详细信息
- Argument Clinic How-To
- The Goals Of Argument Clinic
- Basic Concepts And Usage
- Converting Your First Function
- Advanced Topics
- 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 检测CPython
- Enabling the static markers
- Static DTrace probes
- Static SystemTap markers
- Available static markers
- SystemTap Tapsets
- 示例
- Python 常见问题
- Python常见问题
- 一般信息
- 现实世界中的 Python
- 编程常见问题
- 一般问题
- 核心语言
- 数字和字符串
- 性能
- 序列（元组/列表）
- 对象
- 模块
- 设计和历史常见问题
- 为什么Python使用缩进来分组语句？
- 为什么简单的算术运算得到奇怪的结果？
- 为什么浮点计算不准确？
- 为什么Python字符串是不可变的？
- 为什么必须在方法定义和调用中显式使用“self”？
- 为什么不能在表达式中赋值？
- 为什么Python对某些功能（例如list.index()）使用方法来实现，而其他功能（例如len(List)）使用函数实现？
- 为什么 join()是一个字符串方法而不是列表或元组方法？
- 异常有多快？
- 为什么Python中没有switch或case语句？
- 难道不能在解释器中模拟线程，而非得依赖特定于操作系统的线程实现吗？
- 为什么lambda表达式不能包含语句？
- 可以将Python编译为机器代码，C或其他语言吗？
- Python如何管理内存？
- 为什么CPython不使用更传统的垃圾回收方案？
- CPython退出时为什么不释放所有内存？
- 为什么有单独的元组和列表数据类型？
- 列表是如何在CPython中实现的？
- 字典是如何在CPython中实现的？
- 为什么字典key必须是不可变的？
- 为什么 list.sort() 没有返回排序列表？
- 如何在Python中指定和实施接口规范？
- 为什么没有goto？
- 为什么原始字符串（r-strings）不能以反斜杠结尾？
- 为什么Python没有属性赋值的“with”语句？
- 为什么 if/while/def/class语句需要冒号？
- 为什么Python在列表和元组的末尾允许使用逗号？
- 代码库和插件 FAQ
- 通用的代码库问题
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- 扩展/嵌入常见问题
- 可以使用C语言中创建自己的函数吗？
- 可以使用C++语言中创建自己的函数吗？
- C很难写，有没有其他选择？
- 如何从C执行任意Python语句？
- 如何从C中评估任意Python表达式？
- 如何从Python对象中提取C的值？
- 如何使用Py_BuildValue()创建任意长度的元组？
- 如何从C调用对象的方法？
- 如何捕获PyErr_Print()（或打印到stdout / stderr的任何内容）的输出？
- 如何从C访问用Python编写的模块？
- 如何从Python接口到C ++对象？
- 我使用Setup文件添加了一个模块，为什么make失败了？
- 如何调试扩展？
- 我想在Linux系统上编译一个Python模块，但是缺少一些文件。为什么?
- 如何区分“输入不完整”和“输入无效”？
- 如何找到未定义的g++符号__builtin_new或__pure_virtual？
- 能否创建一个对象类，其中部分方法在C中实现，而其他方法在Python中实现（例如通过继承）？
- Python在Windows上的常见问题
- 我怎样在Windows下运行一个Python程序？
- 我怎么让 Python 脚本可执行？
- 为什么有时候 Python 程序会启动缓慢？
- 我怎样使用Python脚本制作可执行文件？
- *.pyd 文件和DLL文件相同吗？
- 我怎样将Python嵌入一个Windows程序？
- 如何让编辑器不要在我的 Python 源代码中插入 tab ？
- 如何在不阻塞的情况下检查按键？
- 图形用户界面（GUI）常见问题
- 图形界面常见问题
- Python 是否有平台无关的图形界面工具包？
- 有哪些Python的GUI工具是某个平台专用的？
- 有关Tkinter的问题
- “为什么我的电脑上安装了 Python ？”
- 什么是Python？
- 为什么我的电脑上安装了 Python ？
- 我能删除 Python 吗？
- 术语对照表
- 文档说明
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- 历史和许可证
- 软件历史
- 访问Python或以其他方式使用Python的条款和条件
- Python 3.7.3 的 PSF 许可协议
- Python 2.0 的 BeOpen.com 许可协议
- Python 1.6.1 的 CNRI 许可协议
- Python 0.9.0 至 1.2 的 CWI 许可协议
- 集成软件的许可和认可
- Mersenne Twister
- 套接字
- Asynchronous socket services
- Cookie management
- Execution tracing
- UUencode and UUdecode functions
- XML Remote Procedure Calls
- test_epoll
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- OpenSSL
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