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# [`urllib.request`](#module-urllib.request "urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs.") --- 用于打开 URL 的可扩展库
**源码:** [Lib/urllib/request.py](https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/urllib/request.py) \[https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.7/Lib/urllib/request.py\]
- - - - - -
[`urllib.request`](#module-urllib.request "urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs.") 模块定义了适用于在各种复杂情况下打开 URL (主要为 HTTP) 的函数和类 --- 例如基本和精简验证，重定向、cookies 及其它。
参见
[Requests 包](http://docs.python-requests.org/) \[http://docs.python-requests.org/\] 推荐用于更高层级的 HTTP 客户端接口。
The [`urllib.request`](#module-urllib.request "urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs.") module defines the following functions:
`urllib.request.``urlopen`(*url*, *data=None*, \[*timeout*, \]*\**, *cafile=None*, *capath=None*, *cadefault=False*, *context=None*)Open the URL *url*, which can be either a string or a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object.
*data* must be an object specifying additional data to be sent to the server, or `None` if no such data is needed. See [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request")for details.
urllib.request module uses HTTP/1.1 and includes `Connection:close` header in its HTTP requests.
The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used). This actually only works for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.
If *context* is specified, it must be a [`ssl.SSLContext`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext "ssl.SSLContext") instance describing the various SSL options. See [`HTTPSConnection`](http.client.xhtml#http.client.HTTPSConnection "http.client.HTTPSConnection")for more details.
The optional *cafile* and *capath* parameters specify a set of trusted CA certificates for HTTPS requests. *cafile* should point to a single file containing a bundle of CA certificates, whereas *capath* should point to a directory of hashed certificate files. More information can be found in [`ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations()`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations "ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations").
The *cadefault* parameter is ignored.
This function always returns an object which can work as a [context manager](../glossary.xhtml#term-context-manager) and has methods such as
- `geturl()` --- return the URL of the resource retrieved, commonly used to determine if a redirect was followed
- `info()` --- return the meta-information of the page, such as headers, in the form of an [`email.message_from_string()`](email.parser.xhtml#email.message_from_string "email.message_from_string") instance (see [Quick Reference to HTTP Headers](http://jkorpela.fi/http.html) \[http://jkorpela.fi/http.html\])
- `getcode()` -- return the HTTP status code of the response.
For HTTP and HTTPS URLs, this function returns a [`http.client.HTTPResponse`](http.client.xhtml#http.client.HTTPResponse "http.client.HTTPResponse") object slightly modified. In addition to the three new methods above, the msg attribute contains the same information as the [`reason`](http.client.xhtml#http.client.HTTPResponse.reason "http.client.HTTPResponse.reason")attribute --- the reason phrase returned by server --- instead of the response headers as it is specified in the documentation for [`HTTPResponse`](http.client.xhtml#http.client.HTTPResponse "http.client.HTTPResponse").
For FTP, file, and data URLs and requests explicitly handled by legacy [`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener") and [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener") classes, this function returns a `urllib.response.addinfourl` object.
Raises [`URLError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.URLError "urllib.error.URLError") on protocol errors.
Note that `None` may be returned if no handler handles the request (though the default installed global [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") uses [`UnknownHandler`](#urllib.request.UnknownHandler "urllib.request.UnknownHandler") to ensure this never happens).
In addition, if proxy settings are detected (for example, when a `*_proxy`environment variable like `http_proxy` is set), [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") is default installed and makes sure the requests are handled through the proxy.
The legacy `urllib.urlopen` function from Python 2.6 and earlier has been discontinued; [`urllib.request.urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") corresponds to the old `urllib2.urlopen`. Proxy handling, which was done by passing a dictionary parameter to `urllib.urlopen`, can be obtained by using [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") objects.
在 3.2 版更改: *cafile* and *capath* were added.
在 3.2 版更改: HTTPS virtual hosts are now supported if possible (that is, if [`ssl.HAS_SNI`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.HAS_SNI "ssl.HAS_SNI") is true).
3\.2 新版功能: *data* can be an iterable object.
在 3.3 版更改: *cadefault* was added.
在 3.4.3 版更改: *context* was added.
3\.6 版后已移除: *cafile*, *capath* and *cadefault* are deprecated in favor of *context*. Please use [`ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain()`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain "ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain") instead, or let [`ssl.create_default_context()`](ssl.xhtml#ssl.create_default_context "ssl.create_default_context") select the system's trusted CA certificates for you.
`urllib.request.``install_opener`(*opener*)Install an [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") instance as the default global opener. Installing an opener is only necessary if you want urlopen to use that opener; otherwise, simply call [`OpenerDirector.open()`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open "urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open") instead of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen"). The code does not check for a real [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"), and any class with the appropriate interface will work.
`urllib.request.``build_opener`(\[*handler*, *...*\])Return an [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") instance, which chains the handlers in the order given. *handler*s can be either instances of [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), or subclasses of [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler") (in which case it must be possible to call the constructor without any parameters). Instances of the following classes will be in front of the *handler*s, unless the *handler*s contain them, instances of them or subclasses of them: [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") (if proxy settings are detected), [`UnknownHandler`](#urllib.request.UnknownHandler "urllib.request.UnknownHandler"), [`HTTPHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPHandler "urllib.request.HTTPHandler"), [`HTTPDefaultErrorHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler "urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler"), [`HTTPRedirectHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler "urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler"), [`FTPHandler`](#urllib.request.FTPHandler "urllib.request.FTPHandler"), [`FileHandler`](#urllib.request.FileHandler "urllib.request.FileHandler"), [`HTTPErrorProcessor`](#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor "urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor").
If the Python installation has SSL support (i.e., if the [`ssl`](ssl.xhtml#module-ssl "ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects") module can be imported), [`HTTPSHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler "urllib.request.HTTPSHandler") will also be added.
A [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler") subclass may also change its `handler_order`attribute to modify its position in the handlers list.
`urllib.request.``pathname2url`(*path*)Convert the pathname *path* from the local syntax for a path to the form used in the path component of a URL. This does not produce a complete URL. The return value will already be quoted using the [`quote()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.quote "urllib.parse.quote") function.
`urllib.request.``url2pathname`(*path*)Convert the path component *path* from a percent-encoded URL to the local syntax for a path. This does not accept a complete URL. This function uses [`unquote()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.unquote "urllib.parse.unquote") to decode *path*.
`urllib.request.``getproxies`()This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server URL mappings. It scans the environment for variables named `<scheme>_proxy`, in a case insensitive approach, for all operating systems first, and when it cannot find it, looks for proxy information from Mac OSX System Configuration for Mac OS X and Windows Systems Registry for Windows. If both lowercase and uppercase environment variables exist (and disagree), lowercase is preferred.
注解
If the environment variable `REQUEST_METHOD` is set, which usually indicates your script is running in a CGI environment, the environment variable `HTTP_PROXY` (uppercase `_PROXY`) will be ignored. This is because that variable can be injected by a client using the "Proxy:" HTTP header. If you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use `ProxyHandler` explicitly, or make sure the variable name is in lowercase (or at least the `_proxy` suffix).
The following classes are provided:
*class* `urllib.request.``Request`(*url*, *data=None*, *headers={}*, *origin\_req\_host=None*, *unverifiable=False*, *method=None*)This class is an abstraction of a URL request.
*url* should be a string containing a valid URL.
*data* must be an object specifying additional data to send to the server, or `None` if no such data is needed. Currently HTTP requests are the only ones that use *data*. The supported object types include bytes, file-like objects, and iterables. If no `Content-Length` nor `Transfer-Encoding` header field has been provided, [`HTTPHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPHandler "urllib.request.HTTPHandler") will set these headers according to the type of *data*. `Content-Length` will be used to send bytes objects, while `Transfer-Encoding: chunked` as specified in [**RFC 7230**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7230.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7230.html\], Section 3.3.1 will be used to send files and other iterables.
For an HTTP POST request method, *data* should be a buffer in the standard *application/x-www-form-urlencoded* format. The [`urllib.parse.urlencode()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.urlencode "urllib.parse.urlencode") function takes a mapping or sequence of 2-tuples and returns an ASCII string in this format. It should be encoded to bytes before being used as the *data* parameter.
*headers* should be a dictionary, and will be treated as if [`add_header()`](#urllib.request.Request.add_header "urllib.request.Request.add_header") was called with each key and value as arguments. This is often used to "spoof" the `User-Agent` header value, which is used by a browser to identify itself -- some HTTP servers only allow requests coming from common browsers as opposed to scripts. For example, Mozilla Firefox may identify itself as
```
"Mozilla/5.0
(X11; U; Linux i686) Gecko/20071127 Firefox/2.0.0.11"
```
, while [`urllib`](urllib.xhtml#module-urllib "urllib")'s default user agent string is `"Python-urllib/2.6"` (on Python 2.6).
An appropriate `Content-Type` header should be included if the *data*argument is present. If this header has not been provided and *data*is not None, `Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded` will be added as a default.
The final two arguments are only of interest for correct handling of third-party HTTP cookies:
*origin\_req\_host* should be the request-host of the origin transaction, as defined by [**RFC 2965**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html\]. It defaults to `http.cookiejar.request_host(self)`. This is the host name or IP address of the original request that was initiated by the user. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, this should be the request-host of the request for the page containing the image.
*unverifiable* should indicate whether the request is unverifiable, as defined by [**RFC 2965**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html\]. It defaults to `False`. An unverifiable request is one whose URL the user did not have the option to approve. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, and the user had no option to approve the automatic fetching of the image, this should be true.
*method* should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method that will be used (e.g. `'HEAD'`). If provided, its value is stored in the [`method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method") attribute and is used by [`get_method()`](#urllib.request.Request.get_method "urllib.request.Request.get_method"). The default is `'GET'` if *data* is `None` or `'POST'` otherwise. Subclasses may indicate a different default method by setting the [`method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method") attribute in the class itself.
注解
The request will not work as expected if the data object is unable to deliver its content more than once (e.g. a file or an iterable that can produce the content only once) and the request is retried for HTTP redirects or authentication. The *data* is sent to the HTTP server right away after the headers. There is no support for a 100-continue expectation in the library.
在 3.3 版更改: [`Request.method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method") argument is added to the Request class.
在 3.4 版更改: Default [`Request.method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method") may be indicated at the class level.
在 3.6 版更改: Do not raise an error if the `Content-Length` has not been provided and *data* is neither `None` nor a bytes object. Fall back to use chunked transfer encoding instead.
*class* `urllib.request.``OpenerDirector`The [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") class opens URLs via [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler")s chained together. It manages the chaining of handlers, and recovery from errors.
*class* `urllib.request.``BaseHandler`This is the base class for all registered handlers --- and handles only the simple mechanics of registration.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPDefaultErrorHandler`A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses; all responses are turned into [`HTTPError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.HTTPError "urllib.error.HTTPError") exceptions.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPRedirectHandler`A class to handle redirections.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPCookieProcessor`(*cookiejar=None*)A class to handle HTTP Cookies.
*class* `urllib.request.``ProxyHandler`(*proxies=None*)Cause requests to go through a proxy. If *proxies* is given, it must be a dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies. The default is to read the list of proxies from the environment variables `<protocol>_proxy`. If no proxy environment variables are set, then in a Windows environment proxy settings are obtained from the registry's Internet Settings section, and in a Mac OS X environment proxy information is retrieved from the OS X System Configuration Framework.
To disable autodetected proxy pass an empty dictionary.
The `no_proxy` environment variable can be used to specify hosts which shouldn't be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a comma-separated list of hostname suffixes, optionally with `:port` appended, for example `cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080`.
> 注解
>
> `HTTP_PROXY` will be ignored if a variable `REQUEST_METHOD` is set; see the documentation on [`getproxies()`](#urllib.request.getproxies "urllib.request.getproxies").
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPPasswordMgr`Keep a database of `(realm, uri) -> (user, password)` mappings.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`Keep a database of `(realm, uri) -> (user, password)` mappings. A realm of `None` is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched if no other realm fits.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth`A variant of [`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm") that also has a database of `uri -> is_authenticated` mappings. Can be used by a BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication credentials immediately instead of waiting for a `401` response first.
3\.5 新版功能.
*class* `urllib.request.``AbstractBasicAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported. If *passwd\_mgr* also provides `is_authenticated` and `update_authenticated` methods (see [HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects](#http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth)), then the handler will use the `is_authenticated` result for a given URI to determine whether or not to send authentication credentials with the request. If `is_authenticated`returns `True` for the URI, credentials are sent. If `is_authenticated`is `False`, credentials are not sent, and then if a `401` response is received the request is re-sent with the authentication credentials. If authentication succeeds, `update_authenticated` is called to set `is_authenticated``True` for the URI, so that subsequent requests to the URI or any of its super-URIs will automatically include the authentication credentials.
3\.5 新版功能: Added `is_authenticated` support.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPBasicAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)Handle authentication with the remote host. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported. HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a [`ValueError`](exceptions.xhtml#ValueError "ValueError") when presented with a wrong Authentication scheme.
*class* `urllib.request.``ProxyBasicAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)Handle authentication with the proxy. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported.
*class* `urllib.request.``AbstractDigestAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPDigestAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)Handle authentication with the remote host. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported. When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is always tried first. If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x response again, it is sent to Basic Authentication handler to Handle. This Handler method will raise a [`ValueError`](exceptions.xhtml#ValueError "ValueError") when presented with an authentication scheme other than Digest or Basic.
在 3.3 版更改: Raise [`ValueError`](exceptions.xhtml#ValueError "ValueError") on unsupported Authentication Scheme.
*class* `urllib.request.``ProxyDigestAuthHandler`(*password\_mgr=None*)Handle authentication with the proxy. *password\_mgr*, if given, should be something that is compatible with [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr"); refer to section [HTTPPasswordMgr Objects](#http-password-mgr) for information on the interface that must be supported.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPHandler`A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPSHandler`(*debuglevel=0*, *context=None*, *check\_hostname=None*)A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs. *context* and *check\_hostname*have the same meaning as in [`http.client.HTTPSConnection`](http.client.xhtml#http.client.HTTPSConnection "http.client.HTTPSConnection").
在 3.2 版更改: *context* and *check\_hostname* were added.
*class* `urllib.request.``FileHandler`Open local files.
*class* `urllib.request.``DataHandler`Open data URLs.
3\.4 新版功能.
*class* `urllib.request.``FTPHandler`Open FTP URLs.
*class* `urllib.request.``CacheFTPHandler`Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize delays.
*class* `urllib.request.``UnknownHandler`A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs.
*class* `urllib.request.``HTTPErrorProcessor`Process HTTP error responses.
## Request Objects
The following methods describe [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request")'s public interface, and so all may be overridden in subclasses. It also defines several public attributes that can be used by clients to inspect the parsed request.
`Request.``full_url`The original URL passed to the constructor.
在 3.4 版更改.
Request.full\_url is a property with setter, getter and a deleter. Getting [`full_url`](#urllib.request.Request.full_url "urllib.request.Request.full_url") returns the original request URL with the fragment, if it was present.
`Request.``type`The URI scheme.
`Request.``host`The URI authority, typically a host, but may also contain a port separated by a colon.
`Request.``origin_req_host`The original host for the request, without port.
`Request.``selector`The URI path. If the [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") uses a proxy, then selector will be the full URL that is passed to the proxy.
`Request.``data`The entity body for the request, or `None` if not specified.
在 3.4 版更改: Changing value of [`Request.data`](#urllib.request.Request.data "urllib.request.Request.data") now deletes "Content-Length" header if it was previously set or calculated.
`Request.``unverifiable`boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined by [**RFC 2965**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2965.html\].
`Request.``method`The HTTP request method to use. By default its value is [`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None"), which means that [`get_method()`](#urllib.request.Request.get_method "urllib.request.Request.get_method") will do its normal computation of the method to be used. Its value can be set (thus overriding the default computation in [`get_method()`](#urllib.request.Request.get_method "urllib.request.Request.get_method")) either by providing a default value by setting it at the class level in a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") subclass, or by passing a value in to the [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") constructor via the *method*argument.
3\.3 新版功能.
在 3.4 版更改: A default value can now be set in subclasses; previously it could only be set via the constructor argument.
`Request.``get_method`()Return a string indicating the HTTP request method. If [`Request.method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method") is not `None`, return its value, otherwise return `'GET'` if [`Request.data`](#urllib.request.Request.data "urllib.request.Request.data") is `None`, or `'POST'` if it's not. This is only meaningful for HTTP requests.
在 3.3 版更改: get\_method now looks at the value of [`Request.method`](#urllib.request.Request.method "urllib.request.Request.method").
`Request.``add_header`(*key*, *val*)Add another header to the request. Headers are currently ignored by all handlers except HTTP handlers, where they are added to the list of headers sent to the server. Note that there cannot be more than one header with the same name, and later calls will overwrite previous calls in case the *key* collides. Currently, this is no loss of HTTP functionality, since all headers which have meaning when used more than once have a (header-specific) way of gaining the same functionality using only one header.
`Request.``add_unredirected_header`(*key*, *header*)Add a header that will not be added to a redirected request.
`Request.``has_header`(*header*)Return whether the instance has the named header (checks both regular and unredirected).
`Request.``remove_header`(*header*)Remove named header from the request instance (both from regular and unredirected headers).
3\.4 新版功能.
`Request.``get_full_url`()Return the URL given in the constructor.
在 3.4 版更改.
Returns [`Request.full_url`](#urllib.request.Request.full_url "urllib.request.Request.full_url")
`Request.``set_proxy`(*host*, *type*)Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server. The *host* and *type* will replace those of the instance, and the instance's selector will be the original URL given in the constructor.
`Request.``get_header`(*header\_name*, *default=None*)Return the value of the given header. If the header is not present, return the default value.
`Request.``header_items`()Return a list of tuples (header\_name, header\_value) of the Request headers.
在 3.4 版更改: The request methods add\_data, has\_data, get\_data, get\_type, get\_host, get\_selector, get\_origin\_req\_host and is\_unverifiable that were deprecated since 3.3 have been removed.
## OpenerDirector Objects
[`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") instances have the following methods:
`OpenerDirector.``add_handler`(*handler*)*handler* should be an instance of [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"). The following methods are searched, and added to the possible chains (note that HTTP errors are a special case). Note that, in the following, *protocol* should be replaced with the actual protocol to handle, for example `http_response()` would be the HTTP protocol response handler. Also *type* should be replaced with the actual HTTP code, for example `http_error_404()` would handle HTTP 404 errors.
- `<protocol>_open()` --- signal that the handler knows how to open *protocol*URLs.
See [`BaseHandler.<protocol>_open()`](#protocol-open) for more information.
- `http_error_<type>()` --- signal that the handler knows how to handle HTTP errors with HTTP error code *type*.
See [`BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>()`](#http-error-nnn) for more information.
- `<protocol>_error()` --- signal that the handler knows how to handle errors from (non-`http`) *protocol*.
- `<protocol>_request()` --- signal that the handler knows how to pre-process *protocol* requests.
See [`BaseHandler.<protocol>_request()`](#protocol-request) for more information.
- `<protocol>_response()` --- signal that the handler knows how to post-process *protocol* responses.
See [`BaseHandler.<protocol>_response()`](#protocol-response) for more information.
`OpenerDirector.``open`(*url*, *data=None*\[, *timeout*\])Open the given *url* (which can be a request object or a string), optionally passing the given *data*. Arguments, return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") (which simply calls the [`open()`](functions.xhtml#open "open")method on the currently installed global [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector")). The optional *timeout* parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used). The timeout feature actually works only for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections).
`OpenerDirector.``error`(*proto*, *\*args*)Handle an error of the given protocol. This will call the registered error handlers for the given protocol with the given arguments (which are protocol specific). The HTTP protocol is a special case which uses the HTTP response code to determine the specific error handler; refer to the `http_error_<type>()`methods of the handler classes.
Return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen").
OpenerDirector objects open URLs in three stages:
The order in which these methods are called within each stage is determined by sorting the handler instances.
1. Every handler with a method named like `<protocol>_request()` has that method called to pre-process the request.
2. Handlers with a method named like `<protocol>_open()` are called to handle the request. This stage ends when a handler either returns a non-[`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None")value (ie. a response), or raises an exception (usually [`URLError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.URLError "urllib.error.URLError")). Exceptions are allowed to propagate.
In fact, the above algorithm is first tried for methods named `default_open()`. If all such methods return [`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None"), the algorithm is repeated for methods named like `<protocol>_open()`. If all such methods return [`None`](constants.xhtml#None "None"), the algorithm is repeated for methods named `unknown_open()`.
Note that the implementation of these methods may involve calls of the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") instance's [`open()`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open "urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open") and [`error()`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error "urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error") methods.
3. Every handler with a method named like `<protocol>_response()` has that method called to post-process the response.
## BaseHandler Objects
[`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler") objects provide a couple of methods that are directly useful, and others that are meant to be used by derived classes. These are intended for direct use:
`BaseHandler.``add_parent`(*director*)Add a director as parent.
`BaseHandler.``close`()Remove any parents.
The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes derived from [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler").
注解
The convention has been adopted that subclasses defining `<protocol>_request()` or `<protocol>_response()` methods are named `*Processor`; all others are named `*Handler`.
`BaseHandler.``parent`A valid [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"), which can be used to open using a different protocol, or handle errors.
`BaseHandler.``default_open`(*req*)This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs.
This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"). It should return a file-like object as described in the return value of the [`open()`](functions.xhtml#open "open") of [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"), or `None`. It should raise [`URLError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.URLError "urllib.error.URLError"), unless a truly exceptional thing happens (for example, [`MemoryError`](exceptions.xhtml#MemoryError "MemoryError") should not be mapped to `URLError`).
This method will be called before any protocol-specific open method.
`BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(req)`This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should define it if they want to handle URLs with the given protocol.
This method, if defined, will be called by the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"). Return values should be the same as for `default_open()`.
`BaseHandler.``unknown_open`(*req*)This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs with no specific registered handler to open it.
This method, if implemented, will be called by the [`parent`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler.parent "urllib.request.BaseHandler.parent")[`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"). Return values should be the same as for [`default_open()`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler.default_open "urllib.request.BaseHandler.default_open").
`BaseHandler.``http_error_default`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should override it if they intend to provide a catch-all for otherwise unhandled HTTP errors. It will be called automatically by the [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") getting the error, and should not normally be called in other circumstances.
*req* will be a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object, *fp* will be a file-like object with the HTTP error body, *code* will be the three-digit code of the error, *msg*will be the user-visible explanation of the code and *hdrs* will be a mapping object with the headers of the error.
Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen").
`BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)`*nnn* should be a three-digit HTTP error code. This method is also not defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but will be called, if it exists, on an instance of a subclass, when an HTTP error with code *nnn* occurs.
Subclasses should override this method to handle specific HTTP errors.
Arguments, return values and exceptions raised should be the same as for `http_error_default()`.
`BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(req)`This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should define it if they want to pre-process requests of the given protocol.
This method, if defined, will be called by the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"). *req* will be a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object. The return value should be a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object.
`BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(req, response)`This method is *not* defined in [`BaseHandler`](#urllib.request.BaseHandler "urllib.request.BaseHandler"), but subclasses should define it if they want to post-process responses of the given protocol.
This method, if defined, will be called by the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector"). *req* will be a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object. *response* will be an object implementing the same interface as the return value of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen"). The return value should implement the same interface as the return value of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen").
## HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
注解
Some HTTP redirections require action from this module's client code. If this is the case, [`HTTPError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.HTTPError "urllib.error.HTTPError") is raised. See [**RFC 2616**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html\] for details of the precise meanings of the various redirection codes.
An `HTTPError` exception raised as a security consideration if the HTTPRedirectHandler is presented with a redirected URL which is not an HTTP, HTTPS or FTP URL.
`HTTPRedirectHandler.``redirect_request`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*, *newurl*)Return a [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") or `None` in response to a redirect. This is called by the default implementations of the `http_error_30*()` methods when a redirection is received from the server. If a redirection should take place, return a new [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") to allow `http_error_30*()` to perform the redirect to *newurl*. Otherwise, raise [`HTTPError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.HTTPError "urllib.error.HTTPError") if no other handler should try to handle this URL, or return `None` if you can't but another handler might.
注解
The default implementation of this method does not strictly follow [**RFC 2616**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html\], which says that 301 and 302 responses to `POST` requests must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user. In reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a `GET`, and the default implementation reproduces this behavior.
`HTTPRedirectHandler.``http_error_301`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)Redirect to the `Location:` or `URI:` URL. This method is called by the parent [`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") when getting an HTTP 'moved permanently' response.
`HTTPRedirectHandler.``http_error_302`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)The same as [`http_error_301()`](#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 "urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301"), but called for the 'found' response.
`HTTPRedirectHandler.``http_error_303`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)The same as [`http_error_301()`](#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 "urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301"), but called for the 'see other' response.
`HTTPRedirectHandler.``http_error_307`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)The same as [`http_error_301()`](#urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 "urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301"), but called for the 'temporary redirect' response.
## HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
[`HTTPCookieProcessor`](#urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor "urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor") instances have one attribute:
`HTTPCookieProcessor.``cookiejar`The [`http.cookiejar.CookieJar`](http.cookiejar.xhtml#http.cookiejar.CookieJar "http.cookiejar.CookieJar") in which cookies are stored.
## ProxyHandler Objects
`ProxyHandler.<protocol>_open(request)`The [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") will have a method `<protocol>_open()` for every *protocol* which has a proxy in the *proxies* dictionary given in the constructor. The method will modify requests to go through the proxy, by calling `request.set_proxy()`, and call the next handler in the chain to actually execute the protocol.
## HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
These methods are available on [`HTTPPasswordMgr`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr") and [`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm") objects.
`HTTPPasswordMgr.``add_password`(*realm*, *uri*, *user*, *passwd*)*uri* can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs. *realm*, *user* and *passwd* must be strings. This causes `(user, passwd)` to be used as authentication tokens when authentication for *realm* and a super-URI of any of the given URIs is given.
`HTTPPasswordMgr.``find_user_password`(*realm*, *authuri*)Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any. This method will return `(None, None)` if there is no matching user/password.
For [`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm") objects, the realm `None` will be searched if the given *realm* has no matching user/password.
## HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects
This password manager extends [`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm") to support tracking URIs for which authentication credentials should always be sent.
`HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.``add_password`(*realm*, *uri*, *user*, *passwd*, *is\_authenticated=False*)*realm*, *uri*, *user*, *passwd* are as for [`HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password()`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password"). *is\_authenticated* sets the initial value of the `is_authenticated` flag for the given URI or list of URIs. If *is\_authenticated* is specified as `True`, *realm* is ignored.
`HTTPPasswordMgr.``find_user_password`(*realm*, *authuri*)Same as for [`HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm`](#urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm "urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm") objects
`HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.``update_authenticated`(*self*, *uri*, *is\_authenticated=False*)Update the `is_authenticated` flag for the given *uri* or list of URIs.
`HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.``is_authenticated`(*self*, *authuri*)Returns the current state of the `is_authenticated` flag for the given URI.
## AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
`AbstractBasicAuthHandler.``http_error_auth_reqed`(*authreq*, *host*, *req*, *headers*)Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair, and re-trying the request. *authreq* should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, *host* specifies the URL and path to authenticate for, *req* should be the (failed) [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object, and *headers* should be the error headers.
*host* is either an authority (e.g. `"python.org"`) or a URL containing an authority component (e.g. `"http://python.org/"`). In either case, the authority must not contain a userinfo component (so, `"python.org"` and `"python.org:80"` are fine, `"joe:password@python.org"` is not).
## HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
`HTTPBasicAuthHandler.``http_error_401`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
## ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
`ProxyBasicAuthHandler.``http_error_407`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
## AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
`AbstractDigestAuthHandler.``http_error_auth_reqed`(*authreq*, *host*, *req*, *headers*)*authreq* should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, *host* should be the host to authenticate to, *req*should be the (failed) [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") object, and *headers* should be the error headers.
## HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
`HTTPDigestAuthHandler.``http_error_401`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
## ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
`ProxyDigestAuthHandler.``http_error_407`(*req*, *fp*, *code*, *msg*, *hdrs*)Retry the request with authentication information, if available.
## HTTPHandler Objects
`HTTPHandler.``http_open`(*req*)Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on `req.has_data()`.
## HTTPSHandler Objects
`HTTPSHandler.``https_open`(*req*)Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on `req.has_data()`.
## FileHandler Objects
`FileHandler.``file_open`(*req*)Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name is `'localhost'`.
在 3.2 版更改: This method is applicable only for local hostnames. When a remote hostname is given, an [`URLError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.URLError "urllib.error.URLError") is raised.
## DataHandler Objects
`DataHandler.``data_open`(*req*)Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in the URL itself. The data URL syntax is specified in [**RFC 2397**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2397.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2397.html\]. This implementation ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data URLs so the URL may be wrapped in whatever source file it comes from. But even though some browsers don't mind about a missing padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this implementation will raise an [`ValueError`](exceptions.xhtml#ValueError "ValueError") in that case.
## FTPHandler Objects
`FTPHandler.``ftp_open`(*req*)Open the FTP file indicated by *req*. The login is always done with empty username and password.
## CacheFTPHandler Objects
[`CacheFTPHandler`](#urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler "urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler") objects are [`FTPHandler`](#urllib.request.FTPHandler "urllib.request.FTPHandler") objects with the following additional methods:
`CacheFTPHandler.``setTimeout`(*t*)Set timeout of connections to *t* seconds.
`CacheFTPHandler.``setMaxConns`(*m*)Set maximum number of cached connections to *m*.
## UnknownHandler Objects
`UnknownHandler.``unknown_open`()Raise a [`URLError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.URLError "urllib.error.URLError") exception.
## HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
`HTTPErrorProcessor.``http_response`(*request*, *response*)Process HTTP error responses.
For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately.
For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the `http_error_<type>()` handler methods, via [`OpenerDirector.error()`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error "urllib.request.OpenerDirector.error"). Eventually, [`HTTPDefaultErrorHandler`](#urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler "urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler") will raise an [`HTTPError`](urllib.error.xhtml#urllib.error.HTTPError "urllib.error.HTTPError") if no other handler handles the error.
`HTTPErrorProcessor.``https_response`(*request*, *response*)Process HTTPS error responses.
The behavior is same as [`http_response()`](#urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response "urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response").
## 示例
In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in [如何使用urllib包获取网络资源](../howto/urllib2.xhtml#urllib-howto).
This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300 bytes of it.
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
... print(f.read(300))
...
b'\n\n\n<html
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">\n\n<head>\n
<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />\n
<title>Python Programming '
```
Note that urlopen returns a bytes object. This is because there is no way for urlopen to automatically determine the encoding of the byte stream it receives from the HTTP server. In general, a program will decode the returned bytes object to string once it determines or guesses the appropriate encoding.
The following W3C document, <https://www.w3.org/International/O-charset>, lists the various ways in which an (X)HTML or an XML document could have specified its encoding information.
As the python.org website uses *utf-8* encoding as specified in its meta tag, we will use the same for decoding the bytes object.
```
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
... print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
...
>> import urllib.request
>>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/')
>>> print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
>> import urllib.request
>>> req = urllib.request.Request(url='https://localhost/cgi-bin/test.cgi',
... data=b'This data is passed to stdin of the CGI')
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
... print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
Got Data: "This data is passed to stdin of the CGI"
```
The code for the sample CGI used in the above example is:
```
#!/usr/bin/env python
import sys
data = sys.stdin.read()
print('Content-type: text/plain\n\nGot Data: "%s"' % data)
```
Here is an example of doing a `PUT` request using [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request"):
```
import urllib.request
DATA = b'some data'
req = urllib.request.Request(url='http://localhost:8080', data=DATA,method='PUT')
with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
pass
print(f.status)
print(f.reason)
```
Use of Basic HTTP Authentication:
```
import urllib.request
# Create an OpenerDirector with support for Basic HTTP Authentication...
auth_handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler()
auth_handler.add_password(realm='PDQ Application',
uri='https://mahler:8092/site-updates.py',
user='klem',
passwd='kadidd!ehopper')
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(auth_handler)
# ...and install it globally so it can be used with urlopen.
urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html')
```
[`build_opener()`](#urllib.request.build_opener "urllib.request.build_opener") provides many handlers by default, including a [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler"). By default, [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") uses the environment variables named `<scheme>_proxy`, where `<scheme>` is the URL scheme involved. For example, the `http_proxy` environment variable is read to obtain the HTTP proxy's URL.
This example replaces the default [`ProxyHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyHandler "urllib.request.ProxyHandler") with one that uses programmatically-supplied proxy URLs, and adds proxy authorization support with [`ProxyBasicAuthHandler`](#urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler "urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler").
```
proxy_handler = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({'http': 'http://www.example.com:3128/'})
proxy_auth_handler = urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler()
proxy_auth_handler.add_password('realm', 'host', 'username', 'password')
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_handler, proxy_auth_handler)
# This time, rather than install the OpenerDirector, we use it directly:
opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html')
```
Adding HTTP headers:
Use the *headers* argument to the [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") constructor, or:
```
import urllib.request
req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.example.com/')
req.add_header('Referer', 'http://www.python.org/')
# Customize the default User-Agent header value:
req.add_header('User-Agent', 'urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)')
r = urllib.request.urlopen(req)
```
[`OpenerDirector`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector "urllib.request.OpenerDirector") automatically adds a *User-Agent* header to every [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request"). To change this:
```
import urllib.request
opener = urllib.request.build_opener()
opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', 'Mozilla/5.0')]
opener.open('http://www.example.com/')
```
Also, remember that a few standard headers (*Content-Length*, *Content-Type* and *Host*) are added when the [`Request`](#urllib.request.Request "urllib.request.Request") is passed to [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") (or [`OpenerDirector.open()`](#urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open "urllib.request.OpenerDirector.open")).
Here is an example session that uses the `GET` method to retrieve a URL containing parameters:
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
>>> url = "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen(url) as f:
... print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
```
The following example uses the `POST` method instead. Note that params output from urlencode is encoded to bytes before it is sent to urlopen as data:
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> data = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
>>> data = data.encode('ascii')
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen("http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr", data) as f:
... print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
```
The following example uses an explicitly specified HTTP proxy, overriding environment settings:
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
>>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener(proxies)
>>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org") as f:
... f.read().decode('utf-8')
...
```
The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment settings:
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener({})
>>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org/") as f:
... f.read().decode('utf-8')
...
```
## Legacy interface
The following functions and classes are ported from the Python 2 module `urllib` (as opposed to `urllib2`). They might become deprecated at some point in the future.
`urllib.request.``urlretrieve`(*url*, *filename=None*, *reporthook=None*, *data=None*)Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file. If the URL points to a local file, the object will not be copied unless filename is supplied. Return a tuple `(filename, headers)` where *filename* is the local file name under which the object can be found, and *headers* is whatever the `info()` method of the object returned by [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") returned (for a remote object). Exceptions are the same as for [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen").
The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to copy to (if absent, the location will be a tempfile with a generated name). The third argument, if present, is a callable that will be called once on establishment of the network connection and once after each block read thereafter. The callable will be passed three arguments; a count of blocks transferred so far, a block size in bytes, and the total size of the file. The third argument may be `-1` on older FTP servers which do not return a file size in response to a retrieval request.
The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario:
```
>>> import urllib.request
>>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/')
>>> html = open(local_filename)
>>> html.close()
```
If the *url* uses the `http:` scheme identifier, the optional *data*argument may be given to specify a `POST` request (normally the request type is `GET`). The *data* argument must be a bytes object in standard *application/x-www-form-urlencoded* format; see the [`urllib.parse.urlencode()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.urlencode "urllib.parse.urlencode") function.
[`urlretrieve()`](#urllib.request.urlretrieve "urllib.request.urlretrieve") will raise `ContentTooShortError` when it detects that the amount of data available was less than the expected amount (which is the size reported by a *Content-Length* header). This can occur, for example, when the download is interrupted.
The *Content-Length* is treated as a lower bound: if there's more data to read, urlretrieve reads more data, but if less data is available, it raises the exception.
You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is stored in the `content` attribute of the exception instance.
If no *Content-Length* header was supplied, urlretrieve can not check the size of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it. In this case you just have to assume that the download was successful.
`urllib.request.``urlcleanup`()Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by previous calls to [`urlretrieve()`](#urllib.request.urlretrieve "urllib.request.urlretrieve").
*class* `urllib.request.``URLopener`(*proxies=None*, *\*\*x509*)3\.3 版后已移除.
Base class for opening and reading URLs. Unless you need to support opening objects using schemes other than `http:`, `ftp:`, or `file:`, you probably want to use [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener").
By default, the [`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener") class sends a *User-Agent* header of `urllib/VVV`, where *VVV* is the [`urllib`](urllib.xhtml#module-urllib "urllib") version number. Applications can define their own *User-Agent* header by subclassing [`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener") or [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener") and setting the class attribute [`version`](#urllib.request.URLopener.version "urllib.request.URLopener.version") to an appropriate string value in the subclass definition.
The optional *proxies* parameter should be a dictionary mapping scheme names to proxy URLs, where an empty dictionary turns proxies off completely. Its default value is `None`, in which case environmental proxy settings will be used if present, as discussed in the definition of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen"), above.
Additional keyword parameters, collected in *x509*, may be used for authentication of the client when using the `https:` scheme. The keywords *key\_file* and *cert\_file* are supported to provide an SSL key and certificate; both are needed to support client authentication.
[`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener") objects will raise an [`OSError`](exceptions.xhtml#OSError "OSError") exception if the server returns an error code.
`open`(*fullurl*, *data=None*)Open *fullurl* using the appropriate protocol. This method sets up cache and proxy information, then calls the appropriate open method with its input arguments. If the scheme is not recognized, [`open_unknown()`](#urllib.request.URLopener.open_unknown "urllib.request.URLopener.open_unknown") is called. The *data* argument has the same meaning as the *data* argument of [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen").
This method always quotes *fullurl* using [`quote()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.quote "urllib.parse.quote").
`open_unknown`(*fullurl*, *data=None*)Overridable interface to open unknown URL types.
`retrieve`(*url*, *filename=None*, *reporthook=None*, *data=None*)Retrieves the contents of *url* and places it in *filename*. The return value is a tuple consisting of a local filename and either an [`email.message.Message`](email.compat32-message.xhtml#email.message.Message "email.message.Message") object containing the response headers (for remote URLs) or `None` (for local URLs). The caller must then open and read the contents of *filename*. If *filename* is not given and the URL refers to a local file, the input filename is returned. If the URL is non-local and *filename* is not given, the filename is the output of [`tempfile.mktemp()`](tempfile.xhtml#tempfile.mktemp "tempfile.mktemp")with a suffix that matches the suffix of the last path component of the input URL. If *reporthook* is given, it must be a function accepting three numeric parameters: A chunk number, the maximum size chunks are read in and the total size of the download (-1 if unknown). It will be called once at the start and after each chunk of data is read from the network. *reporthook* is ignored for local URLs.
If the *url* uses the `http:` scheme identifier, the optional *data*argument may be given to specify a `POST` request (normally the request type is `GET`). The *data* argument must in standard *application/x-www-form-urlencoded* format; see the [`urllib.parse.urlencode()`](urllib.parse.xhtml#urllib.parse.urlencode "urllib.parse.urlencode") function.
`version`Variable that specifies the user agent of the opener object. To get [`urllib`](urllib.xhtml#module-urllib "urllib") to tell servers that it is a particular user agent, set this in a subclass as a class variable or in the constructor before calling the base constructor.
*class* `urllib.request.``FancyURLopener`(*...*)3\.3 版后已移除.
[`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener") subclasses [`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener") providing default handling for the following HTTP response codes: 301, 302, 303, 307 and 401. For the 30x response codes listed above, the *Location* header is used to fetch the actual URL. For 401 response codes (authentication required), basic HTTP authentication is performed. For the 30x response codes, recursion is bounded by the value of the *maxtries* attribute, which defaults to 10.
For all other response codes, the method `http_error_default()` is called which you can override in subclasses to handle the error appropriately.
注解
According to the letter of [**RFC 2616**](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html) \[https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html\], 301 and 302 responses to POST requests must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user. In reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a GET, and [`urllib`](urllib.xhtml#module-urllib "urllib") reproduces this behaviour.
The parameters to the constructor are the same as those for [`URLopener`](#urllib.request.URLopener "urllib.request.URLopener").
注解
When performing basic authentication, a [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener") instance calls its [`prompt_user_passwd()`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener.prompt_user_passwd "urllib.request.FancyURLopener.prompt_user_passwd") method. The default implementation asks the users for the required information on the controlling terminal. A subclass may override this method to support more appropriate behavior if needed.
The [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener") class offers one additional method that should be overloaded to provide the appropriate behavior:
`prompt_user_passwd`(*host*, *realm*)Return information needed to authenticate the user at the given host in the specified security realm. The return value should be a tuple,
```
(user,
password)
```
, which can be used for basic authentication.
The implementation prompts for this information on the terminal; an application should override this method to use an appropriate interaction model in the local environment.
## [`urllib.request`](#module-urllib.request "urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs.") Restrictions
>
- Currently, only the following protocols are supported: HTTP (versions 0.9 and 1.0), FTP, local files, and data URLs.
在 3.4 版更改: Added support for data URLs.
- The caching feature of [`urlretrieve()`](#urllib.request.urlretrieve "urllib.request.urlretrieve") has been disabled until someone finds the time to hack proper processing of Expiration time headers.
- There should be a function to query whether a particular URL is in the cache.
- For backward compatibility, if a URL appears to point to a local file but the file can't be opened, the URL is re-interpreted using the FTP protocol. This can sometimes cause confusing error messages.
- The [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") and [`urlretrieve()`](#urllib.request.urlretrieve "urllib.request.urlretrieve") functions can cause arbitrarily long delays while waiting for a network connection to be set up. This means that it is difficult to build an interactive Web client using these functions without using threads.
- The data returned by [`urlopen()`](#urllib.request.urlopen "urllib.request.urlopen") or [`urlretrieve()`](#urllib.request.urlretrieve "urllib.request.urlretrieve") is the raw data returned by the server. This may be binary data (such as an image), plain text or (for example) HTML. The HTTP protocol provides type information in the reply header, which can be inspected by looking at the *Content-Type*header. If the returned data is HTML, you can use the module [`html.parser`](html.parser.xhtml#module-html.parser "html.parser: A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML.") to parse it.
- The code handling the FTP protocol cannot differentiate between a file and a directory. This can lead to unexpected behavior when attempting to read a URL that points to a file that is not accessible. If the URL ends in a `/`, it is assumed to refer to a directory and will be handled accordingly. But if an attempt to read a file leads to a 550 error (meaning the URL cannot be found or is not accessible, often for permission reasons), then the path is treated as a directory in order to handle the case when a directory is specified by a URL but the trailing `/` has been left off. This can cause misleading results when you try to fetch a file whose read permissions make it inaccessible; the FTP code will try to read it, fail with a 550 error, and then perform a directory listing for the unreadable file. If fine-grained control is needed, consider using the [`ftplib`](ftplib.xhtml#module-ftplib "ftplib: FTP protocol client (requires sockets).") module, subclassing [`FancyURLopener`](#urllib.request.FancyURLopener "urllib.request.FancyURLopener"), or changing *\_urlopener* to meet your needs.
# [`urllib.response`](#module-urllib.response "urllib.response: Response classes used by urllib.") --- Response classes used by urllib
The [`urllib.response`](#module-urllib.response "urllib.response: Response classes used by urllib.") module defines functions and classes which define a minimal file like interface, including `read()` and `readline()`. The typical response object is an addinfourl instance, which defines an `info()`method and that returns headers and a `geturl()` method that returns the url. Functions defined by this module are used internally by the [`urllib.request`](#module-urllib.request "urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs.") module.
### 导航
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- 在Unix平台中使用Python
- 获取最新版本的Python
- 构建Python
- 与Python相关的路径和文件
- 杂项
- 编辑器和集成开发环境
- 在Windows上使用 Python
- 完整安装程序
- Microsoft Store包
- nuget.org 安装包
- 可嵌入的包
- 替代捆绑包
- 配置Python
- 适用于Windows的Python启动器
- 查找模块
- 附加模块
- 在Windows上编译Python
- 其他平台
- 在苹果系统上使用 Python
- 获取和安装 MacPython
- IDE
- 安装额外的 Python 包
- Mac 上的图形界面编程
- 在 Mac 上分发 Python 应用程序
- 其他资源
- Python 语言参考
- 概述
- 其他实现
- 标注
- 词法分析
- 行结构
- 其他形符
- 标识符和关键字
- 字面值
- 运算符
- 分隔符
- 数据模型
- 对象、值与类型
- 标准类型层级结构
- 特殊方法名称
- 协程
- 执行模型
- 程序的结构
- 命名与绑定
- 异常
- 导入系统
- importlib
- 包
- 搜索
- 加载
- 基于路径的查找器
- 替换标准导入系统
- Package Relative Imports
- 有关 main 的特殊事项
- 开放问题项
- 参考文献
- 表达式
- 算术转换
- 原子
- 原型
- await 表达式
- 幂运算符
- 一元算术和位运算
- 二元算术运算符
- 移位运算
- 二元位运算
- 比较运算
- 布尔运算
- 条件表达式
- lambda 表达式
- 表达式列表
- 求值顺序
- 运算符优先级
- 简单语句
- 表达式语句
- 赋值语句
- assert 语句
- pass 语句
- del 语句
- return 语句
- yield 语句
- raise 语句
- break 语句
- continue 语句
- import 语句
- global 语句
- nonlocal 语句
- 复合语句
- if 语句
- while 语句
- for 语句
- try 语句
- with 语句
- 函数定义
- 类定义
- 协程
- 最高层级组件
- 完整的 Python 程序
- 文件输入
- 交互式输入
- 表达式输入
- 完整的语法规范
- Python 标准库
- 概述
- 可用性注释
- 内置函数
- 内置常量
- 由 site 模块添加的常量
- 内置类型
- 逻辑值检测
- 布尔运算 — and, or, not
- 比较
- 数字类型 — int, float, complex
- 迭代器类型
- 序列类型 — list, tuple, range
- 文本序列类型 — str
- 二进制序列类型 — bytes, bytearray, memoryview
- 集合类型 — set, frozenset
- 映射类型 — dict
- 上下文管理器类型
- 其他内置类型
- 特殊属性
- 内置异常
- 基类
- 具体异常
- 警告
- 异常层次结构
- 文本处理服务
- string — 常见的字符串操作
- re — 正则表达式操作
- 模块 difflib 是一个计算差异的助手
- textwrap — Text wrapping and filling
- unicodedata — Unicode 数据库
- stringprep — Internet String Preparation
- readline — GNU readline interface
- rlcompleter — GNU readline的完成函数
- 二进制数据服务
- struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data
- codecs — Codec registry and base classes
- 数据类型
- datetime — 基础日期/时间数据类型
- calendar — General calendar-related functions
- collections — 容器数据类型
- collections.abc — 容器的抽象基类
- heapq — 堆队列算法
- bisect — Array bisection algorithm
- array — Efficient arrays of numeric values
- weakref — 弱引用
- types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
- copy — 浅层 (shallow) 和深层 (deep) 复制操作
- pprint — 数据美化输出
- reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation
- enum — Support for enumerations
- 数字和数学模块
- numbers — 数字的抽象基类
- math — 数学函数
- cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
- decimal — 十进制定点和浮点运算
- fractions — 分数
- random — 生成伪随机数
- statistics — Mathematical statistics functions
- 函数式编程模块
- itertools — 为高效循环而创建迭代器的函数
- functools — 高阶函数和可调用对象上的操作
- operator — 标准运算符替代函数
- 文件和目录访问
- pathlib — 面向对象的文件系统路径
- os.path — 常见路径操作
- fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
- stat — Interpreting stat() results
- filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons
- tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories
- glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion
- fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching
- linecache — Random access to text lines
- shutil — High-level file operations
- macpath — Mac OS 9 路径操作函数
- 数据持久化
- pickle —— Python 对象序列化
- copyreg — Register pickle support functions
- shelve — Python object persistence
- marshal — Internal Python object serialization
- dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”
- sqlite3 — SQLite 数据库 DB-API 2.0 接口模块
- 数据压缩和存档
- zlib — 与 gzip 兼容的压缩
- gzip — 对 gzip 格式的支持
- bz2 — 对 bzip2 压缩算法的支持
- lzma — 用 LZMA 算法压缩
- zipfile — 在 ZIP 归档中工作
- tarfile — Read and write tar archive files
- 文件格式
- csv — CSV 文件读写
- configparser — Configuration file parser
- netrc — netrc file processing
- xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data
- plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files
- 加密服务
- hashlib — 安全哈希与消息摘要
- hmac — 基于密钥的消息验证
- secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
- 通用操作系统服务
- os — 操作系统接口模块
- io — 处理流的核心工具
- time — 时间的访问和转换
- argparse — 命令行选项、参数和子命令解析器
- getopt — C-style parser for command line options
- 模块 logging — Python 的日志记录工具
- logging.config — 日志记录配置
- logging.handlers — Logging handlers
- getpass — 便携式密码输入工具
- curses — 终端字符单元显示的处理
- curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs
- curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters
- curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses
- platform — Access to underlying platform's identifying data
- errno — Standard errno system symbols
- ctypes — Python 的外部函数库
- 并发执行
- threading — 基于线程的并行
- multiprocessing — 基于进程的并行
- concurrent 包
- concurrent.futures — 启动并行任务
- subprocess — 子进程管理
- sched — 事件调度器
- queue — 一个同步的队列类
- _thread — 底层多线程 API
- _dummy_thread — _thread 的替代模块
- dummy_threading — 可直接替代 threading 模块。
- contextvars — Context Variables
- Context Variables
- Manual Context Management
- asyncio support
- 网络和进程间通信
- asyncio — 异步 I/O
- socket — 底层网络接口
- ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
- select — Waiting for I/O completion
- selectors — 高级 I/O 复用库
- asyncore — 异步socket处理器
- asynchat — 异步 socket 指令/响应 处理器
- signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events
- mmap — Memory-mapped file support
- 互联网数据处理
- email — 电子邮件与 MIME 处理包
- json — JSON 编码和解码器
- mailcap — Mailcap file handling
- mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
- mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types
- base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 数据编码
- binhex — 对binhex4文件进行编码和解码
- binascii — 二进制和 ASCII 码互转
- quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
- uu — Encode and decode uuencode files
- 结构化标记处理工具
- html — 超文本标记语言支持
- html.parser — 简单的 HTML 和 XHTML 解析器
- html.entities — HTML 一般实体的定义
- XML处理模块
- xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API
- xml.dom — The Document Object Model API
- xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation
- xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees
- xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers
- xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers
- xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities
- xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers
- xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat
- 互联网协议和支持
- webbrowser — 方便的Web浏览器控制器
- cgi — Common Gateway Interface support
- cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts
- wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
- urllib — URL 处理模块
- urllib.request — 用于打开 URL 的可扩展库
- urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib
- urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components
- urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request
- urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt
- http — HTTP 模块
- http.client — HTTP协议客户端
- ftplib — FTP protocol client
- poplib — POP3 protocol client
- imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client
- nntplib — NNTP protocol client
- smtplib —SMTP协议客户端
- smtpd — SMTP Server
- telnetlib — Telnet client
- uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122
- socketserver — A framework for network servers
- http.server — HTTP 服务器
- http.cookies — HTTP state management
- http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients
- xmlrpc — XMLRPC 服务端与客户端模块
- xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access
- xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers
- ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
- 多媒体服务
- audioop — Manipulate raw audio data
- aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
- sunau — 读写 Sun AU 文件
- wave — 读写WAV格式文件
- chunk — Read IFF chunked data
- colorsys — Conversions between color systems
- imghdr — 推测图像类型
- sndhdr — 推测声音文件的类型
- ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
- 国际化
- gettext — 多语种国际化服务
- locale — 国际化服务
- 程序框架
- turtle — 海龟绘图
- cmd — 支持面向行的命令解释器
- shlex — Simple lexical analysis
- Tk图形用户界面(GUI)
- tkinter — Tcl/Tk的Python接口
- tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets
- tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk
- tkinter.scrolledtext — 滚动文字控件
- IDLE
- 其他图形用户界面（GUI）包
- 开发工具
- typing — 类型标注支持
- pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system
- doctest — Test interactive Python examples
- unittest — 单元测试框架
- unittest.mock — mock object library
- unittest.mock 上手指南
- 2to3 - 自动将 Python 2 代码转为 Python 3 代码
- test — Regression tests package for Python
- test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite
- test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests
- 调试和分析
- bdb — Debugger framework
- faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback
- pdb — The Python Debugger
- The Python Profilers
- timeit — 测量小代码片段的执行时间
- trace — Trace or track Python statement execution
- tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations
- 软件打包和分发
- distutils — 构建和安装 Python 模块
- ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer
- venv — 创建虚拟环境
- zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives
- Python运行时服务
- sys — 系统相关的参数和函数
- sysconfig — Provide access to Python's configuration information
- builtins — 内建对象
- main — 顶层脚本环境
- warnings — Warning control
- dataclasses — 数据类
- contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts
- abc — 抽象基类
- atexit — 退出处理器
- traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback
- future — Future 语句定义
- gc — 垃圾回收器接口
- inspect — 检查对象
- site — Site-specific configuration hook
- 自定义 Python 解释器
- code — Interpreter base classes
- codeop — Compile Python code
- 导入模块
- zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives
- pkgutil — Package extension utility
- modulefinder — 查找脚本使用的模块
- runpy — Locating and executing Python modules
- importlib — The implementation of import
- Python 语言服务
- parser — Access Python parse trees
- ast — 抽象语法树
- symtable — Access to the compiler's symbol tables
- symbol — 与 Python 解析树一起使用的常量
- token — 与Python解析树一起使用的常量
- keyword — 检验Python关键字
- tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source
- tabnanny — 模糊缩进检测
- pyclbr — Python class browser support
- py_compile — Compile Python source files
- compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries
- dis — Python 字节码反汇编器
- pickletools — Tools for pickle developers
- 杂项服务
- formatter — Generic output formatting
- Windows系统相关模块
- msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files
- msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
- winreg — Windows 注册表访问
- winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows
- Unix 专有服务
- posix — The most common POSIX system calls
- pwd — 用户密码数据库
- spwd — The shadow password database
- grp — The group database
- crypt — Function to check Unix passwords
- termios — POSIX style tty control
- tty — 终端控制功能
- pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities
- fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls
- pipes — Interface to shell pipelines
- resource — Resource usage information
- nis — Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages)
- Unix syslog 库例程
- 被取代的模块
- optparse — Parser for command line options
- imp — Access the import internals
- 未创建文档的模块
- 平台特定模块
- 扩展和嵌入 Python 解释器
- 推荐的第三方工具
- 不使用第三方工具创建扩展
- 使用 C 或 C++ 扩展 Python
- 自定义扩展类型：教程
- 定义扩展类型：已分类主题
- 构建C/C++扩展
- 在Windows平台编译C和C++扩展
- 在更大的应用程序中嵌入 CPython 运行时
- Embedding Python in Another Application
- Python/C API 参考手册
- 概述
- 代码标准
- 包含文件
- 有用的宏
- 对象、类型和引用计数
- 异常
- 嵌入Python
- 调试构建
- 稳定的应用程序二进制接口
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- 异常处理
- Printing and clearing
- 抛出异常
- Issuing warnings
- Querying the error indicator
- Signal Handling
- Exception Classes
- Exception Objects
- Unicode Exception Objects
- Recursion Control
- 标准异常
- 标准警告类别
- 工具
- 操作系统实用程序
- 系统功能
- 过程控制
- 导入模块
- Data marshalling support
- 语句解释及变量编译
- 字符串转换与格式化
- 反射
- 编解码器注册与支持功能
- 抽象对象层
- Object Protocol
- 数字协议
- Sequence Protocol
- Mapping Protocol
- 迭代器协议
- 缓冲协议
- Old Buffer Protocol
- 具体的对象层
- 基本对象
- 数值对象
- 序列对象
- 容器对象
- 函数对象
- 其他对象
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- 在Python初始化之前
- 全局配置变量
- Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
- Process-wide parameters
- Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
- Sub-interpreter support
- Asynchronous Notifications
- Profiling and Tracing
- Advanced Debugger Support
- Thread Local Storage Support
- 内存管理
- 概述
- 原始内存接口
- Memory Interface
- 对象分配器
- 默认内存分配器
- Customize Memory Allocators
- The pymalloc allocator
- tracemalloc C API
- 示例
- 对象实现支持
- 在堆中分配对象
- Common Object Structures
- Type 对象
- Number Object Structures
- Mapping Object Structures
- Sequence Object Structures
- Buffer Object Structures
- Async Object Structures
- 使对象类型支持循环垃圾回收
- API 和 ABI 版本管理
- 分发 Python 模块
- 关键术语
- 开源许可与协作
- 安装工具
- 阅读指南
- 我该如何...？
- ...为我的项目选择一个名字？
- ...创建和分发二进制扩展？
- 安装 Python 模块
- 关键术语
- 基本使用
- 我应如何 ...？
- ... 在 Python 3.4 之前的 Python 版本中安装 pip ？
- ... 只为当前用户安装软件包？
- ... 安装科学计算类 Python 软件包？
- ... 使用并行安装的多个 Python 版本？
- 常见的安装问题
- 在 Linux 的系统 Python 版本上安装
- 未安装 pip
- 安装二进制编译扩展
- Python 常用指引
- 将 Python 2 代码迁移到 Python 3
- 简要说明
- 详情
- 将扩展模块移植到 Python 3
- 条件编译
- 对象API的更改
- 模块初始化和状态
- CObject 替换为 Capsule
- 其他选项
- Curses Programming with Python
- What is curses?
- Starting and ending a curses application
- Windows and Pads
- Displaying Text
- User Input
- For More Information
- 实现描述器
- 摘要
- 定义和简介
- 描述器协议
- 发起调用描述符
- 描述符示例
- Properties
- 函数和方法
- Static Methods and Class Methods
- 函数式编程指引
- 概述
- 迭代器
- 生成器表达式和列表推导式
- 生成器
- 内置函数
- itertools 模块
- The functools module
- Small functions and the lambda expression
- Revision History and Acknowledgements
- 引用文献
- 日志 HOWTO
- 日志基础教程
- 进阶日志教程
- 日志级别
- 有用的处理程序
- 记录日志中引发的异常
- 使用任意对象作为消息
- 优化
- 日志操作手册
- 在多个模块中使用日志
- 在多线程中使用日志
- 使用多个日志处理器和多种格式化
- 在多个地方记录日志
- 日志服务器配置示例
- 处理日志处理器的阻塞
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- Use of alternative formatting styles
- Customizing LogRecord
- Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
- Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
- A more elaborate multiprocessing example
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Customizing handlers with dictConfig()
- Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
- Configuring filters with dictConfig()
- Customized exception formatting
- Speaking logging messages
- Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
- Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
- Using a context manager for selective logging
- 正则表达式HOWTO
- 概述
- 简单模式
- 使用正则表达式
- 更多模式能力
- 修改字符串
- 常见问题
- 反馈
- 套接字编程指南
- 套接字
- 创建套接字
- 使用一个套接字
- 断开连接
- 非阻塞的套接字
- 排序指南
- 基本排序
- 关键函数
- Operator 模块函数
- 升序和降序
- 排序稳定性和排序复杂度
- 使用装饰-排序-去装饰的旧方法
- 使用 cmp 参数的旧方法
- 其它
- Unicode 指南
- Unicode 概述
- Python's Unicode Support
- Reading and Writing Unicode Data
- Acknowledgements
- 如何使用urllib包获取网络资源
- 概述
- Fetching URLs
- 处理异常
- info and geturl
- Openers and Handlers
- Basic Authentication
- Proxies
- Sockets and Layers
- 脚注
- Argparse 教程
- 概念
- 基础
- 位置参数介绍
- Introducing Optional arguments
- Combining Positional and Optional arguments
- Getting a little more advanced
- Conclusion
- ipaddress模块介绍
- 创建 Address/Network/Interface 对象
- 审查 Address/Network/Interface 对象
- Network 作为 Address 列表
- 比较
- 将IP地址与其他模块一起使用
- 实例创建失败时获取更多详细信息
- Argument Clinic How-To
- The Goals Of Argument Clinic
- Basic Concepts And Usage
- Converting Your First Function
- Advanced Topics
- 使用 DTrace 和 SystemTap 检测CPython
- Enabling the static markers
- Static DTrace probes
- Static SystemTap markers
- Available static markers
- SystemTap Tapsets
- 示例
- Python 常见问题
- Python常见问题
- 一般信息
- 现实世界中的 Python
- 编程常见问题
- 一般问题
- 核心语言
- 数字和字符串
- 性能
- 序列（元组/列表）
- 对象
- 模块
- 设计和历史常见问题
- 为什么Python使用缩进来分组语句？
- 为什么简单的算术运算得到奇怪的结果？
- 为什么浮点计算不准确？
- 为什么Python字符串是不可变的？
- 为什么必须在方法定义和调用中显式使用“self”？
- 为什么不能在表达式中赋值？
- 为什么Python对某些功能（例如list.index()）使用方法来实现，而其他功能（例如len(List)）使用函数实现？
- 为什么 join()是一个字符串方法而不是列表或元组方法？
- 异常有多快？
- 为什么Python中没有switch或case语句？
- 难道不能在解释器中模拟线程，而非得依赖特定于操作系统的线程实现吗？
- 为什么lambda表达式不能包含语句？
- 可以将Python编译为机器代码，C或其他语言吗？
- Python如何管理内存？
- 为什么CPython不使用更传统的垃圾回收方案？
- CPython退出时为什么不释放所有内存？
- 为什么有单独的元组和列表数据类型？
- 列表是如何在CPython中实现的？
- 字典是如何在CPython中实现的？
- 为什么字典key必须是不可变的？
- 为什么 list.sort() 没有返回排序列表？
- 如何在Python中指定和实施接口规范？
- 为什么没有goto？
- 为什么原始字符串（r-strings）不能以反斜杠结尾？
- 为什么Python没有属性赋值的“with”语句？
- 为什么 if/while/def/class语句需要冒号？
- 为什么Python在列表和元组的末尾允许使用逗号？
- 代码库和插件 FAQ
- 通用的代码库问题
- 通用任务
- 线程相关
- 输入输出
- 网络 / Internet 编程
- 数据库
- 数学和数字
- 扩展/嵌入常见问题
- 可以使用C语言中创建自己的函数吗？
- 可以使用C++语言中创建自己的函数吗？
- C很难写，有没有其他选择？
- 如何从C执行任意Python语句？
- 如何从C中评估任意Python表达式？
- 如何从Python对象中提取C的值？
- 如何使用Py_BuildValue()创建任意长度的元组？
- 如何从C调用对象的方法？
- 如何捕获PyErr_Print()（或打印到stdout / stderr的任何内容）的输出？
- 如何从C访问用Python编写的模块？
- 如何从Python接口到C ++对象？
- 我使用Setup文件添加了一个模块，为什么make失败了？
- 如何调试扩展？
- 我想在Linux系统上编译一个Python模块，但是缺少一些文件。为什么?
- 如何区分“输入不完整”和“输入无效”？
- 如何找到未定义的g++符号__builtin_new或__pure_virtual？
- 能否创建一个对象类，其中部分方法在C中实现，而其他方法在Python中实现（例如通过继承）？
- Python在Windows上的常见问题
- 我怎样在Windows下运行一个Python程序？
- 我怎么让 Python 脚本可执行？
- 为什么有时候 Python 程序会启动缓慢？
- 我怎样使用Python脚本制作可执行文件？
- *.pyd 文件和DLL文件相同吗？
- 我怎样将Python嵌入一个Windows程序？
- 如何让编辑器不要在我的 Python 源代码中插入 tab ？
- 如何在不阻塞的情况下检查按键？
- 图形用户界面（GUI）常见问题
- 图形界面常见问题
- Python 是否有平台无关的图形界面工具包？
- 有哪些Python的GUI工具是某个平台专用的？
- 有关Tkinter的问题
- “为什么我的电脑上安装了 Python ？”
- 什么是Python？
- 为什么我的电脑上安装了 Python ？
- 我能删除 Python 吗？
- 术语对照表
- 文档说明
- Python 文档贡献者
- 解决 Bug
- 文档错误
- 使用 Python 的错误追踪系统
- 开始为 Python 贡献您的知识
- 版权
- 历史和许可证
- 软件历史
- 访问Python或以其他方式使用Python的条款和条件
- Python 3.7.3 的 PSF 许可协议
- Python 2.0 的 BeOpen.com 许可协议
- Python 1.6.1 的 CNRI 许可协议
- Python 0.9.0 至 1.2 的 CWI 许可协议
- 集成软件的许可和认可
- Mersenne Twister
- 套接字
- Asynchronous socket services
- Cookie management
- Execution tracing
- UUencode and UUdecode functions
- XML Remote Procedure Calls
- test_epoll
- Select kqueue
- SipHash24
- strtod and dtoa
- OpenSSL
- expat
- libffi
- zlib
- cfuhash
- libmpdec